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Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Olá, amantes de viagens e descobridoras de mundos! Sou o vosso Tiago Silva, e hoje levo-vos numa jornada inesquecível a uma cidade que mora no meu coração e na alma de #Portugal. Preparem-se para se perderem nas ruas calcetadas, nos aromas do passado e nos sons de um presente vibrante, porque vamos explorar Lisboa: A Cidade das Sete Colinas. Lisboa: O Abraço Atlântico e a Porta da Europa Imaginem uma cidade que se debruça sobre o oceano, onde o sol beija as águas de um rio majestoso e onde a brisa do Atlântico sussurra histórias de navegadores e descobertas. Essa é Lisboa, a capital e a maior cidade do nosso querido Portugal, um epicentro de vida e cultura que pulsa com uma energia inconfundível. Com uma população que, em 2022, se estimava em cerca de 548.703 habitantes nos seus cem quilómetros quadrados de encantos, Lisboa não é apenas um número, mas um universo de experiências à espera de ser desvendado. É aqui, neste cantinho abençoado da Península Ibérica, que encontramos a capital mais ocidental da Europa continental. Sim, ouviram bem! Enquanto outras capitais europeias se aninham mais a leste, ou se escondem em ilhas distantes como Reiquiavique e Dublin, Lisboa ergue-se orgulhosamente ao longo da costa atlântica, a única capital continental a desfrutar deste privilégio. É uma posição geográfica que moldou a sua identidade, a sua luz e a sua alma. A cidade estende-se graciosamente na margem norte do rio Tejo, um espelho de água que reflete séculos de história e que serve de cenário para alguns dos mais belos pores-do-sol que já tive o prazer de testemunhar. E se falarmos de extremos, a área metropolitana de Lisboa guarda um segredo ainda mais ocidental: o imponente Cabo da Roca, na deslumbrante Costa do Estoril. É o ponto mais ocidental da Europa continental, um lugar onde a terra acaba e o mar começa, e onde a vastidão do oceano nos lembra a audácia dos nossos antepassados. Esta região metropolitana é um verdadeiro caldeirão de vida, acolhendo cerca de 3 milhões de pessoas, o que a torna a terceira maior área metropolitana da Península Ibérica, apenas superada por Madrid e Barcelona. É uma das dez áreas urbanas mais populosas da União Europeia, e representa cerca de um terço da população total do país. Um facto que, por si só, demonstra a centralidade e a importância desta cidade no panorama nacional e europeu. Cada vez que regresso a Lisboa, sinto que estou a regressar a casa, a um lugar onde a história se encontra com a modernidade num abraço perfeito. É uma sensação que só uma grande #viagem pode proporcionar. Um Palimpsesto de Milénios: A História Viva de Lisboa Caminhar por Lisboa é como folhear um livro de história vivo, onde cada rua, cada praça, cada pedra tem uma história para contar. É uma das cidades mais antigas do mundo e, preparem-se para este dado fascinante, a segunda capital europeia mais antiga, superada apenas por Atenas. Sim, Lisboa antecede em séculos muitas das capitais europeias modernas que hoje conhecemos e admiramos. É uma antiguidade que se sente no ar, que se respira nas suas vielas e que se vê nos seus monumentos. A sua fundação remonta a tempos imemoriais, quando tribos pré-celtas já habitavam estas terras férteis. Mais tarde, os fenícios, mestres do comércio marítimo, estabeleceram aqui um porto vibrante, aproveitando a localização estratégica do estuário do Tejo. Imagino os seus navios a aportar, carregados de mercadorias exóticas, dando início à vocação cosmopolita de Lisboa. A influência romana não tardou a chegar, e foi Júlio César quem elevou a cidade ao estatuto de município romano, batizando-a de Felicitas Julia, um termo que se acrescentou ao nome original, Olissipo. A era romana deixou marcas indeléveis, desde os vestígios arqueológicos até à própria organização da cidade. Com a queda do Império Romano, Lisboa passou por um período de transições, sendo governada por uma sucessão de tribos germânicas a partir do século V, com os Visigodos a deixarem a sua pegada mais notável. No entanto, o século VIII trouxe uma nova onda de transformação com a invasão moura. Durante séculos, a cidade floresceu sob o domínio islâmico, enriquecendo-se com novos conhecimentos, arquiteturas e culturas. A Lisboa moura era um centro de saber e beleza, e ainda hoje podemos vislumbrar essa influência em certos bairros e na toponímia. Foi em 1147 que um capítulo decisivo foi escrito na longa #história de Lisboa. Afonso Henriques, o primeiro rei de Portugal, empreendeu a reconquista da cidade, um evento que marcou profundamente a identidade nacional. E em 1255, a coroação da sua importância: Lisboa tornou-se oficialmente a capital do Reino de Portugal, substituindo Coimbra. Desde então, nunca mais perdeu esse estatuto, firmando-se como o coração pulsante do país. O Coração Pulsante de Portugal: Um Centro de Poder e Cultura Desde aquele ano de 1255, Lisboa tem sido, ininterruptamente, o centro nevrálgico de Portugal em todas as frentes. É aqui que o pulso político do país bate mais forte, sendo a sede do governo, da Assembleia da República, onde as leis são debatidas e criadas, e do Supremo Tribunal de Justiça, guardião da legalidade. As Forças Armadas têm na capital o seu comando central, e é também aqui que reside o nosso chefe de Estado, o Presidente da República, num palácio que observa o Tejo. Mas Lisboa não é apenas o centro da governação interna; é também o epicentro da diplomacia portuguesa no mundo. A cidade acolhe embaixadores de 86 países, cada um representando a sua nação e fortalecendo os laços internacionais de Portugal. Além disso, representações de Taiwan e da Palestina também têm aqui a sua voz, sublinhando o papel de Lisboa como um ponto de encontro global. Esta efervescência diplomática confere à cidade um ambiente verdadeiramente internacional, onde diferentes culturas se cruzam e se influenciam mutuamente. É uma prova da abertura e da relevância de Portugal no cenário mundial. A riqueza da #cultura lisboeta é inegável, manifestando-se em cada esquina, em cada fachada de azulejos, no fado que ecoa pelas noites de Alfama, ou nos museus que guardam tesouros de milénios. Esta cidade é um palco onde o passado se encontra com o presente, onde as tradições se misturam com as tendências mais modernas, criando uma atmosfera única e apaixonante. Uma Metrópole Global de Destaque: Brilho e Inovação Lisboa transcendeu há muito tempo o seu papel de capital nacional para se afirmar como uma verdadeira cidade global, reconhecida com o estatuto de nível alfa. Este reconhecimento não é por acaso, mas sim um reflexo da sua crescente importância em áreas tão diversas como as finanças, o comércio, a moda, a mídia, o entretenimento, as artes, o comércio internacional, a educação e o turismo. Lisboa não é apenas um destino, é um motor de inovação e um centro de oportunidades. É uma das duas cidades portuguesas (sendo a outra o Porto, a minha cidade natal!) a ostentar este título de cidade global, o que demonstra a vitalidade económica e cultural do nosso país. A capital é, inclusive, a sede de três empresas que figuram na prestigiada lista Global 2000: o Grupo EDP, a Galp Energia e a Jerónimo Martins. Estes gigantes empresariais são um testemunho da força e da capacidade de Lisboa em gerar valor e inovação à escala mundial. A cidade é, sem dúvida, um dos grandes centros económicos da #Europa. O seu setor financeiro está em constante crescimento, com o índice PSI a integrar a Euronext, a maior bolsa de valores da Europa continental. Este é um indicador claro da confiança dos investidores e da solidez económica da região. A riqueza gerada em Lisboa é notável, com a região a apresentar um PIB por paridade do poder de compra per capita mais elevado do que qualquer outra região portuguesa. É um polo de prosperidade que atrai talento e investimento. Não é de estranhar, portanto, que Lisboa ocupe o 40º lugar no ranking mundial de maior rendimento bruto. A cidade é também um refúgio para a riqueza, com quase 21 mil milionários residentes, o que a coloca como a 11ª cidade europeia em número de milionários e a 14ª em número de bilionários. Estes números, embora frios, pintam um quadro de uma metrópole dinâmica e próspera. A maior parte das sedes das empresas multinacionais portuguesas estão estrategicamente localizadas na região de Lisboa, reforçando o seu papel como centro de decisão e inovação. É uma cidade que, apesar da sua antiguidade, está sempre a olhar para o futuro, a construir e a reinventar-se. O Enigma do Nome: Olissipo, Ulisses e Além A história de um lugar é inseparável da história do seu nome, e a etimologia de Lisboa é um mistério fascinante, com várias origens sugeridas, mas nenhuma conclusiva. É como tentar desvendar um segredo antigo, sussurrado pelos ventos que sopram do Tejo. Uma das versões mais recentes e credíveis, sugerida por Francisco Villar, aponta para que "Olissipo" possa ter origem na extinta língua tartessa, falada pelos povos Tartessos que habitaram algumas áreas no sul do país. É intrigante pensar que o prefixo "Oli(s)" não seria único, visto estar associado a outra cidade lusitana de localização desconhecida, que Pompónio Mela referia como "Olitingi". Isto sugere uma possível raiz linguística comum, um eco de civilizações perdidas. No século XVII, Samuel Bochart, um académico francês dedicado ao estudo da Bíblia, propôs que Olissipo seria uma designação pré-romana, remontando aos fenícios, que no seu tempo comercializavam intensamente na Península Ibérica. Segundo ele, Olissipo seria uma derivação do fenício "Allis Ubbo", que significaria "Porto Seguro", uma alusão mais que apropriada ao excelente porto natural situado no estuário do Tejo. Embora esta teoria seja poeticamente apelativa, a ausência de registos que a comprovem levou os académicos recentes a descartá-la. Contudo, a imagem de um "Porto Seguro" ressoa com a natureza acolhedora e protetora de Lisboa, um farol na #natureza atlântica. Os autores da Antiguidade, por sua vez, preferiam uma lenda mais épica, atribuindo a fundação de Olissipo ao próprio Ulisses, o astuto herói da mitologia grega. Baseando-se provavelmente em Estrabão, contava-se que Ulisses teria fundado uma cidade chamada Olissipo num local incerto da Península Ibérica, supostamente nas margens do rio Tejo. Esta lenda, embora mítica, confere a Lisboa um toque de grandiosidade e heroísmo que se encaixa perfeitamente na sua história. Posteriormente, durante a época Romana, o nome adaptou-se para a versão latina Olissipona ou Ulyssipona. Ptolomeu, outro geógrafo da antiguidade, chamou-lhe Oliosipon. Com a chegada dos Suevos e Visigodos, a interpretação germânica da língua transformou-a em Ulishbon. E, como já mencionei, #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
Bienvenue! Let us embark on an unforgettable #journey to the heart of #France. Corsica ( KOR-sik-ə; Corsican: [ˈkorsiɡa, ˈkɔrsika]; Italian: [ˈkɔrsika]; French: Corse [kɔʁs] ; Ligurian: Còrsega) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 18 regions of #France. It is the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of the French mainland, west of the Italian Peninsula and immediately north of the Italian island of Sardinia, the nearest land mass. A single chain of mountains makes up two-thirds of the island. As of January 2026, it had a population of 365,636. The island is a territorial collectivity of France, and is expected to achieve "a form of autonomy" in the near future. The regional capital is Ajaccio. Although the region is divided into two administrative departments, Haute-Corse and Corse-du-Sud, their respective regional and departmental territorial collectivities were merged on 1 January 2018 to form the single territorial collectivity of Corsica. Corsican autonomy is more extensive than in other regional collectivities of France and the Corsican Assembly is permitted to exercise limited executive powers. Corsica's second largest town is Bastia, located in the prefecture of Haute-Corse. Corsica was ruled by the Republic of Genoa from 1284 to 1755, when it seceded to become a self-proclaimed, Italian-speaking republic. In 1768, Genoa officially ceded it to Louis XV of France as part of a pledge for the debts incurred after enlisting French military help in suppressing the Corsican revolt; as a result, France annexed the island in 1769. The future Emperor of the French, Napoleon Bonaparte, was a native Corsican, born that same year in Ajaccio: his ancestral home, Maison Bonaparte, is now a visitor attraction and museum. Because of Corsica's historical ties to Tuscany, the island has retained many Italian cultural elements, and many Corsican surnames are rooted in the Italian peninsula. French is the official and most widely spoken language on the island with Corsican, the native language and an Italo-Dalmatian language, also recognized as one of France's regional languages. Corsica is the third-least populated region of France after Mayotte and French Guiana. Recent Corsican #history has been largely shaped around the growing nationalist movement within the region. A regionalist movement in the 1960s preceded this (Corsica was a department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region until 1975). Following an armed standoff between French authorities and Corsican autonomists in 1975, and the harsh response from French authorities, an ongoing armed conflict began between French forces and Corsican nationalist guerrilla and paramilitary groups, most notably the National Liberation Front of Corsica (FLNC) and its many descendants. War-like violence continued until 2014, when a truce was announced between the FLNC-Union of Combatants, the largest faction of the Corsican nationalists, and the French government. The second largest faction, the FLNC-22 October, signed a truce in 2016. Violence picked up in 2022 after the murder of Yvan Colonna, a jailed Corsican nationalist, murdered by a prison inmate. Many suspect the French government is involved in the attack, and in 2023 the FLNC-UC and FLNC-22U resumed armed conflict. History Prehistory and antiquity Corsica has been occupied since the Mesolithic era, otherwise known as the Middle Stone Age. The permanent human presence in Corsica is documented in the Neolithic period from the 6th millennium BC. After a brief occupation by the Carthaginians, colonization by the #ancient Greeks, and a slightly longer occupation by the Etruscans, it was incorporated by the Roman Republic at the end of the First Punic War. In 238 BC, along with Sardinia, the islands became a province of the Roman Republic The Romans established colonies at Mariana and Aléria on the east coast, but they had little control over the interior. The Greeks, who had earlier built a colony in Aléria, considered Corsica to be one of the most backward regions of the Roman world. The island produced sheep, honey, resin and wax, and exported many slaves. Moreover, it was known for its cheap wines, exported to Rome, and was used as a place of exile; one of the most famous Romans exiled there was the philosopher Seneca. Corsica was integrated into Roman Italy by Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305). Administratively, the island was divided into pagi, which in the Middle Ages became the pievi, the basic administrative units of the island until 1768. Middle Ages In the fifth century, the western half of the Roman #empire collapsed, and the island was invaded by the Vandals and the Ostrogoths. Briefly recovered by the Byzantine Empire, it soon became part of the Kingdom of the Lombards. This made it a dependency of the Duchy of Tuscia, which used it as an outpost against the Saracens. Pepin the Short, king of the Franks and Charlemagne's father, expelled the Lombards and nominally granted Corsica to Pope Stephen II. In the first quarter of the 11th century, Pisa and Genoa together freed the island from the threat of Arab invasion. After that, the island came under the influence of the Republic of Pisa. Many polychrome churches which adorn the island date from this period. Corsica also experienced a massive immigration from Tuscany, which gave to the island its present toponymy and rendered the language spoken in the northern two-thirds of the island very close to the Tuscan dialect. This led to the traditional division of Corsica into two parts, along the main chain of mountains roughly going from Calvi to Porto-Vecchio: the eastern Banda di dentro, or Cismonte, more populated, developed, and open to the commerce with Italy, and the western Banda di fuori, or Pomonte, almost deserted, wild and remote. The defeat experienced by Pisa in 1284 in the Battle of Meloria against Genoa had among its consequences the end of the Pisan rule and the beginning of the Genoese influence in Corsica: this was contested initially by the King of Aragon, who in 1296 had received from the Pope the investiture over Sardinia and Corsica. A popular revolution against this and the feudal lords, led by Sambucuccio d'Alando, got the aid of Genoa. After that, the Cismonte was ruled as a league of comuni and churches, after the Italian experience. The following 150 years were a period of conflict, when the Genoese rule was contested by Aragon, the local lords, the comuni and the Pope: finally, in 1450 Genoa ceded the administration of the island to its main bank, the Bank of Saint George, which brought peace. In the 16th century, the island entered into the fight between Spain and France for supremacy in Italy. In 1553, a Franco-Ottoman fleet occupied Corsica, but the reaction of Spain and Genoa, led by Andrea Doria, reestablished the Genoese supremacy on the island, confirmed by the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. Sampiero Corso (Sampiero di Bastelica) would later come to be considered a hero of the island. Their power reinstated, the Genoese did not allow the Corsican nobility to share in the government of the island and oppressed the inhabitants with a heavy tax burden. On the other hand, they introduced the chestnut tree on a large scale, improving the diet of the population, and built a chain of towers along the coast to defend Corsica from the attacks of the Barbary pirates from North Africa. The period of peace lasted until 1729, when the refusal to pay taxes by a peasant sparked the general insurrection of the island against Genoa. The island became known for the large number of mercenary soldiers and officers it produced. In 1743, over 4,600 Corsicans, or 4% of the entire population of the island, were serving as soldiers in various armies (predominantly those of Genoa, Venice, and Spain), making it one of the most militarized societies in Europe. Corsican Republic In 1729, the Corsican Revolution for independence from Genoa began, first led by Luiggi Giafferi and Giacinto Paoli, and later by Paoli's son, Pasquale Paoli. After 26 years of struggle against the Republic of Genoa, including an ephemeral attempt in 1736 to proclaim an independent Kingdom of Corsica under the German adventurer Theodor von Neuhoff, an independent Corsican Republic was proclaimed in 1755 under the leadership of Pasquale Paoli and remained sovereign until 1769 when the island was conquered by France. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Pasquale Paoli was able to return to Corsica from exile in Britain. In 1794, he invited British forces under Lord Hood to intervene to free Corsica from French rule. Anglo-Corsican forces drove the French from the island and established an Anglo-Corsican Kingdom. Following Spain's entry into the war, the British decided to withdraw from Corsica in 1796. 19th century Despite being the birthplace of the Emperor, the island was slightly neglected by Napoleon's government. In 1814, near the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Corsica was briefly occupied again by British troops. The Treaty of Bastia gave the British crown sovereignty over the island, but it was later repudiated by Lord Castlereagh who insisted that the island should be returned to a restored French monarchy. After the restoration, the island was further neglected by the French state. Despite the presence of a middle class in Bastia and Ajaccio, Corsica remained an otherwise primitive place, whose economy consisted mainly of subsistence agriculture, and whose population constituted a pastoral society, dominated by clans and the rules of vendetta. The code of vendetta required Corsicans to seek deadly revenge for offences against their family's honor. Between 1821 and 1852, no fewer than 4,300 murders were perpetrated in Corsica. During the first half of the century, the people of Corsica were still immersed in the Italian cultural world: the bourgeoisie sent children to Pisa to study, official acts were enacted in Italian and most books were printed in Italian. Moreover, many islanders sympathised with the national struggle which was taking place in nearby Italy in those years: several political refugees from the peninsula, like Niccolò Tommaseo, spent years on the island, while some Corsicans, like Count Leonetto Cipriani, took active part in the fights for Italian independence. Despite all that, during those years the Corsicans began to feel an increasingly strong attachment to France. The reasons for that are manifold: the knowledge of the French language, which thanks to the mandatory primary school started to penetrate among the local youth, the high prestige of French #culture, the awareness of being part of a big, powerful state, the possibility of well-paid jobs as civil servants, both in the island, in the mainland and in the colonies, the prospect of serving the French army during the wars for the conquest of the colonial empire, the introduction of steamboats, which reduced the #travel time between mainland France and the island drastically, and – last but not least – Napoleon himself, whose existence alone constituted an indissoluble link between France and Corsica. Thanks to all these factors by around 1870 Corsica had landed in the French cultural world. From the 19th century into the mid-20th century, Corsicans also grew closer to the French nation through participation in the French Empire. Compared to much of Metropolitan France, Corsica was poor and many Corsicans emigrated. While Corsicans emigrated globally, especially to many South American countries, many chose to move within the French Empire which acted as a conduit for emigration and eventual return, as many young Corsican men could find better job opportunities in the far corners of the Empire where many other French hesitated to go. In many parts of the Empire, Corsicans were strongly represented, such as in Saigon where in 1926 12% of Europeans were from Corsica. Across the French Empire, many Corsicans retained a sense of community by establishing organizations where they would meet regularly, keep one another informed of developments in Corsica, and come to one another's aid in times of need. Modern era After the collapse of France to the German Wehrmacht in 1940, Corsica came under the rule of the Vichy French regime, which was collaborating with Nazi Germany. In November 1942 the island was occupied by Italian and German forces following the Anglo-American landings in North Africa. After the Italian armistice in September 1943, Italian and Free French Forces pushed the Germans out of the island, making Corsica the first French department to be freed. During the May 1958 crisis, the French military command in Algeria mutinied against the French Fourth Republic and on 24 May occupied the island in an action called Opération Corse that led to the collapse of the government; the second phase of the coup attempt, occupying #Paris, was cancelled following the establishment of a transitional government under Charles de Gaulle. Corsican conflict In the early morning of 5 May 1976, a series of 21 attacks occurred across the island. These were claimed by a previously unknown group, the National Liberation Front of Corsica (Fronte di Liberazione Naziunale di a Corsica, FLNC). This group, modeled after the Algerian National Liberation Front, carried out a series of guerrilla attacks, mostly bombings, in the name of Corsican nationalism. By the afternoon of 5 May, a series of demands, called the Manifesto of 5 May, was released, expressing desire to detach itself from the French state and pursue the interest of Corsicans, who they claimed had lived under a colonial state since the time of the Genoese. This is considered the beginning of the Corsican conflict. From 5 May onwards, the FLNC carried out a large number of bomb attacks, ambushes, and other acts of guerrilla warfare against French forces, which they described as “colonial forces”. Notable attacks in the 1970s include the bombing of the Pigno transmitter in Bastia in 1977, the bombing of the air base in Solenzara in 1978, and the bombing of 23 buildings in Paris in one day in 1979. In 1981, the FLNC called a truce and supported François Mitterrand’s socialist campaign for president in order to open discussion with the socialist party in hopes of securing a Corsican autonomy process that would lead to eventual independence. The resulting Defferre Agreements were marked with instability, including an attempted assassination of sitting president Giscard shortly before the 1981 election. The FLNC achieved the reopening of the University of Corsica, but withdrew from the agreements in early 1982. The following agreements between Corsican autonomists and other government officials resulted in the creation of the Corsican Assembly and other government institutions. Following the departure of the FLNC from the agreements and the return of violence, the FLNC carried out larger operations in both number and scale; the 1980s is generally considered the deadliest period of the conflict. In May 1988, The FLNC signed a truce with the government similar to the 1981 truce. This caused a rift in the movement and would result in a division within the FLNC. The pro-truce “habituels” led by Alain Orsoni, formed the FLNC-Canal Habituel (Canale Abituale, FLNC-CA). The anti-truce “historiques” formed the FLNC-Canal Historique (Canale Storicu, FLNC-CS). A smaller third split called Resistenza, led by members unhappy with both of the other two movements, also formed. These three groups engaged in warfare between each other for most of the 1990s. Resistenza would gradually lower their arms before becoming a pro-peace organization in 1996. The FLNC-CA would announce its self-dissolution in 1996, which would result in a split amongst pro-war members creating the FLNC-5 May. The FLNC-CS participated in failed negotiations with the French government in 1996. Militants associated with the FLNC-5M and FLNC-CA carried out an assassination of prefect Claude Érignac in 1998. In 1999, the FLNC-Union of Combatants (Unione di Cumbattenti, FLNC-UC) formed out of a union between the FLNC-CS, FLNC-5M, an FLNC-CS splinter group called Fronte Ribellu, and a minor group called Clandestinu. In 2002, the FLNC-UC split, with more radical members forming the FLNC-22 October (22 Uttrovi, FLNC-22U). These groups led the nationalist in the conflict (with numerous minor groups) until 2014 and 2016, when the groups respectively signed truces. In 2022, Corsican nationalist Yvan Colonna was killed by an inmate. This resulted in large waves of unrest in Corsica which reignited the conflict. The August 2022 Corsica derecho swept across the island and killed six people, injured dozens of others, and caused significant damage. Geography Corsica was formed about 250 million years ago with the uplift of a granite backbone on the western side. About 50 million years ago sedimentary rock was pressed against this granite, forming the schists of the eastern side. It is the most mountainous island in the Mediterranean, a "mountain in the sea". The island is 183 km (114 mi) long at its longest, 83 km (52 mi) wide at its widest, has 1,000 km (620 mi) of coastline, with more than 200 beaches such as Paraguano. Corsica is very mountainous, with Monte Cinto as the highest peak at 2,706 m (8,878 ft), and around 120 other summits of more than 2,000 m (6,600 ft). Mountains comprise two-thirds of the island, forming a single chain. Forests make up 20% of the island. It is also the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, after Sicily, Sardinia and Cyprus. Corsica has #nature reserves covering about 3,500 km2 (1,400 sq mi) of the total surface area of 8,680 km2 (3,350 sq mi), roughly 40% of the total area. Primarily located in its interior is Parc naturel régional de Corse. Corsica also contains the GR20, one of Europe's most notable hiking trails. The island is 90 km (56 mi) from Tuscany in Italy and 170 km (110 mi) from the Côte d'Azur in France. It is separated from Sardinia to the south by the Strait of Bonifacio, which has a width of 11 km (6.8 mi) at its narrowest point. Major communities In 2005 the population of Corsica was settled in approximately 360 communities. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification scheme, coastal regions are characterized by a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa). Further inland, a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) is more common. At the highest elevation locations, small areas with a subarctic climate (Dsc, Dfc) and the rare Mediterranean climate can be found. The station of Sari-Solenzara records the highest year-round temperatures in Metropolitan France, with an annual average of 16.41 °C over the 1981–2010 period. The average amount of sunshine received annually was 2,715 hours in the period 2008–2016. Ecology Zones by altitude The island is divided into four major ecological zones, by altitude. Below 600 metres (2,000 ft) is the coastal zone's mild Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. The area's natural vegetation is sparse Mediterranean forest, scrubland, and shrubs. The coastal lowlands are part of the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion, in which forests and woodlands of evergreen sclerophyll oaks predominate, chiefly holm oak (Quercus ilex) and cork oak (Quercus suber). Much of the coastal lowlands have been cleared for agriculture, grazing and logging; these activities have reduced the forest area considerably. Between 600 and 1,800 m (2,000 and 5,900 ft) is a temperate montane zone. The mountains are cooler and wetter, and home to the Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion. This region supports diverse forests of oak, pine, and broadleaf deciduous trees, with vegetation more typical of northern Europe. The population lives predominantly below 900 m (3,000 ft), with only shepherds and hikers from 600 to 900 m (2,000 to 3,000 ft). The subalpine zone, located between 1,750 and 2,100 m (5,740 and 6,890 ft) is characterized by the presence of small trees and shrubs, especially ferns, and heaths. The elevation above 1,800 to 2,700 m (5,900 to 8,900 ft) is the high alpine zone. Vegetation is sparse, with high winds and frequent cloud cover. This zone is uninhabited. There is considerable birdlife in Corsica. One famous example is the bearded vulture, or Lammergeier, which (along with the iconic griffon vulture) serve as environmental "janitors" by scavenging the remains of deceased animals, thus limiting the proliferation of infectious microbes and diseases. Other avian species to be seen include the barn owl, blue rock thrush, common crane, Corsican nuthatch, golden eagle, greater flamingo, osprey, peregrine falcon, red kite, and starry bittern. In some cases, Corsica is an isolated portion of a species' distribution; in other cases, it is the furthest point in a species' range. For example, a subspecies of hooded crow (Corvus cornix cornix) occurs in Corsica, but not anywhere further south. Corsica has abundant reptile and amphibians, one protected species being the sensitive Hermann's tortoise, which are found at A Cupulatta at Vero and Moltifao Regional Natural Park. Corsican brook and fire salamanders, leaf-toed gecko, and yellow and green grass snakes are also common. The European pond turtle can be seen, especially in the waters of Fango Estuary, southern Calvi, Biguglia Lagoon and Pietracorbara. Parc Naturel Régional de Corse The island has a natural park (Parc Naturel Régional de Corse, Parcu di Corsica), which protects rare animal and plant species. The park was created in 1972 and includes the Golfe de Porto, the Scandola Nature Reserve (a #UNESCO World Heritage Site), and some of the highest mountains on the island. Scandola cannot be reached on foot, but people can gain access by boat from the village of Galéria and Porto (Ota). Two endangered subspecies of hoofed mammals, the European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus) inhabit the park. The Corsican red deer was re-introduced after it was extinct due to overhunting. This Corsican subspecies was the same that survived on Sardinia, so it is endemic. There are other species endemic to Corsica especially in the upper mountain ranges, i.e. Corsican nuthatch, Corsican fire salamander and Corsican brook salamander and many plant subspecies. Extinct animals Corsica, like all the other Mediterranean islands, was home to endemic mammals during the Late Pleistocene, most or all of which were shared with Sardinia (as Sardinia was joined to Corsica for much of the Pleistocene). Similarly to other Mediterranean islands, this fauna was generally impoverished and characterized by a low species diversity and incomplete filling of ecological niches. The island's native fauna included the Sardinian dhole, the mustelid Enhydrictis galictoides, the otters Algarolutra majori and Lutra castiglionis, the deer Praemegaceros cazioti, the Corsican giant shrew, the Tyrrhenian mole, the Sardinian pika, the Tyrrhenian vole, and the Tyrrhenian field rat. The marine or semi-marine Sardinian otters Sardolutra ichnusae and Megalenhydris barbaricina may also have been present in Corsica. Most of the island's native fauna began to die off after the arrival of humans in the Mesolithic, around 8000 BC. By the Neolithic, only four small-bodied species, the Corsican giant shrew, the Sardinian pika, the Tyrrhenian field rat, and the Tyrrhenian vole, survived. Praemegaceros had become locally extinct, although a population survived in Sardinia for a longer span of time. The surviving species were subjected to increased hunting pressures from both humans and introduced animals such as the red fox and least weasel, as well as competition for food from livestock and continental rodent species. However, they remained present on the island until historic times. Their extinction is correlated with the arrival further invasive animals, primarily the black rat, which arrived with the Carthaginians and the Romans, and with a rise in deforestation during the Roman period. Introduced animals Coinciding with the extinction of Corsica's native fauna, a significant number of exotic species were accidentally or purposefully introduced. Foreign animals arrived in two broad waves, the first during the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, followed by a lull in introductions until a second wave spanning from the Roman period to the present. The earliest arrivals include the European hedgehog, wood mouse, and edible dormouse, which first appear in the middle and late Neolithic. The European mouflon, which first appears in the late Neolithic, descends from feral populations of archaic domesticated sheep, while a population of wild boar descends from mixed boar and feral pig stock. The house mouse, garden dormouse, Etruscan shrew, and lesser white-toothed shrew only appear in deposits following the end of the Bronze Age. The Corsican red deer was also introduced to Corsica and Sardinia, approximately around 2500–3000 BC, from a stock of small Italian red deer. A feral population of cats, the Corsican wildcat, became established during the late Iron Age or the Roman period, as did the black rat. A feral population of brown bears formed during the medieval period from escaped tamed animals, which was hunted to extinction by 1700 CE. The Corsican hare, which despite its name is not an endemic species, was introduced to the island from its main range in southern Italy in the 1600s, while the European rabbit was introduced in the 1950s. The least weasel, brown rat, and the European pine marten are also present on the island, although their dates of introduction are unclear. Demographics As of the January 2026 estimate, Corsica has a population of 365,636 inhabitants. Immigration At the 2019 census, 55.7% of the inhabitants of Corsica were people born on the island, 29.9% were from Continental France, 0.3% were natives of Overseas France, and 14.1% were born in foreign countries. The majority of the foreign immigrants in Corsica come from the Maghreb (particularly Moroccans, who made up 29.0% of all immigrants in Corsica at the 2019 census) and from Southern Europe (particularly Portuguese and Italians, 23.9% and 12.5% of immigrants on the island respectively). Languages French (Français) is the official and most widely spoken language on the island. Italian was the official language of Corsica until 9 May 1859, when it was replaced by French. Corsican (Corsu), a minority language that is closely related to medieval Tuscan (Toscano), has a better prospect of survival than most other French regional languages: Corsican is the second most widely spoken language after French. However, since the annexation of the island by France in the 18th century, Corsican has been under heavy pressure from French, and today it is estimated that only 10% of Corsica's population speak the language natively, with only 50% having some sort of proficiency in it. Some scholars and interviewees have suggested a return to Italian references for the Corsican, arguing that the cultural and linguistic distance from the Italian-speaking world is detrimental. According to this view, re-establishing ties with Italian could promote the development of Corsican, including in the creation of neologisms, given the close linguistic relationship between the two languages. Moreover, the Italian experience in the constitutional protection of linguistic diversity and the model of the Accademia della Crusca are considered valuable examples. Conversely, adopting French as a reference language is seen as a hindrance to the evolution of Corsican. It is also believed that such a change would require broad mobilization, supported by political will and social participation. The Corsican language is divided into two main varieties: Cismuntanu and Ultramuntanu, spoken respectively northeast and southwest of the Girolata–Porto Vecchio line. This division was due to the massive immigration from Tuscany which took place in Corsica during the lower Middle Ages: as a result, the Cismuntanu became very similar to the Tuscan dialects, being part of the Italo-Dalmatian language group, while the Ultramuntanu maintained its original characteristics which make it much more similar to a Southern Romance language, such as Sardinian (Sardu). Therefore, due to the differences between the main dialectal varieties, many linguists classify Corsican as an Italo-Dalmatian language, while others consider it a Southern Romance one. Fewer and fewer people speak a Ligurian dialect, known as bunifazzinu, in what has long been a language island, Bonifacio, and in Ajaccio, the aghjaccinu dialect. In Cargèse, a village established by Greek immigrants in the 17th century, Greek (Ελληνικά) was the traditional language. Among foreign languages, the most spoken ones were English (39%) and Italian (34%) as reported by an official survey by the regional government. Cuisine From the mountains to the plains and sea, many ingredients play a role. Game such as wild boar (Cingale, Singhjari) is popular. There also is seafood and river fish, such as trout. Delicacies, such as figatellu (also named as ficateddu), made with liver, coppa, ham (prizuttu), lonzu, are made from Corsican pork (porcu nustrale). Characteristic among the cheeses is brocciu (similar to ricotta), which is used as a fresh ingredient in many dishes, from first courses (sturzapreti) to cakes (fiadone). Other cheeses, like casgiu merzu ("rotten cheese", the Corsican counterpart of the Sardinian casu martzu), and casgiu veghju, are made from goat or sheep milk. Chestnuts are the main ingredient in the making of pulenta castagnina and cakes (falculelle). A variety of alcohol also exists, ranging from aquavita (brandy), red and white Corsican wines (Vinu Corsu), muscat wine (plain or sparkling), to the famous "Cap Corse" apéritif produced by Mattei. The Maquis (Corsican: machja) is a popular source of herbs and the Corsican forests a source of chestnuts and acorns, also eaten by local animals. Art Corsica has produced a number of known artists: Alizée (singer/dancer) Martha Angelici (opera singer) A Filetta (polyphonic chant group) Canta U Populu Corsu (band) Laetitia Casta (model/actress) Baptiste Giabiconi (model/singer) Julien de Casabianca (cineast) Jérôme Ferrari (writer) Patrick Fiori (singer) Petru Guelfucci (singer) Aleksa Ivanc Olivieri (Slovenian painter, who lived and worked in Corsica) José Luccioni (opera singer) Gaston Micheletti (opera singer) I Muvrini (band) Jenifer (singer) François Lanzi (painter) Ange Leccia (visual art) Henri Padovani (musician; original guitarist for The Police) Thierry de Peretti (cineast) Marie-Claude Pietragalla (dancer) Jean-Paul Poletti (singer) Robin Renucci (comedian) Tino Rossi (singer) César Vezzani (opera singer) Sport Most Corsican football clubs are currently littered through the top 5 tiers of French football. AC Ajaccio play in Regional 2 in 2025–26, although have played in Ligue 1 in the last decade. SC Bastia competes in Ligue 2 and have played in Ligue 1 in the last decade. FC Bastia-Borgo currently competes in the Championnat National and Gazélec Ajaccio currently competes in the Championnat National 3. ÉF Bastia previously competed in Regional 1, but in 2021 merged with fellow Corsican team Association de la Jeunesse de Biguglia, to form Football Jeunesse Étoile Biguglia. Tour de Corse is a rally held since 1956, which was a round of the World Rally Championship from 1973 to 2008 and later the Intercontinental Rally Challenge and European Rally Championship. The Tour de Corse returned as a World Rally Championship round in 2015. Administration Before 1975, Corsica was a département of the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. In 1975 two new départements, Haute-Corse and Corse-du-Sud, were created by splitting the hitherto united departement of Corsica. On 2 March 1982, a law was passed that gave Corsica the status of territorial collectivity (collectivité territoriale), abolishing the Corsican Regional Council. Unlike the regional councils, the Corsican Assembly has executive powers over the island. In 1992, three institutions were formed in the territorial collectivity of Corsica: The Executive Council of Corsica, which handles the type of executive functions held in other French regions by the presidents of the Regional Councils. It ensures the stability and consistency needed to manage the affairs of the territory The Corsican Assembly, a deliberative, unicameral legislative body with greater powers than the regional councils on the mainland The Economic, Social and Cultural Council of Corsica, an advisory body A local referendum held in 2003, aimed at abolishing the two départements to leave a territorial collectivity with extended powers, was voted down by a narrow margin. However, the issue of Corsican autonomy and greater powers for the Corsican Assembly continues to hold sway over Corsican politics. Economy The gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 10 billion euros in 2021. In 1584 the Republic of Genoa governor ordered all farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly; a chestnut, olive, ficus, and mulberry tree. Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. Corsica's main exports are granite and marble, tannic acid, cork, cheese, wine, citrus fruit, olive oil and cigarettes. Transport Airports Corsica has four international airports: Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport Bastia – Poretta Airport Calvi – Sainte-Catherine Airport Figari–Sud Corse Airport (near Bonifacio and Porto Vecchio in the south) All airports are served by regional French airline Air Corsica, as well as Air France which mainly offers connections to Paris-Orly. Budget carriers, such as EasyJet and Ryanair, offer seasonal connections to different cities in Europe. Railway The island has 232 kilometres (144 miles) of metre gauge railway. The main line runs between Bastia and Ajaccio via Ponte Leccia, and there is a branch line from Ponte Leccia to Calvi. The name of the rail network is Chemins de fer de la Corse (CFC). For a list of stations, see Railway stations in Corsica. There was also the Eastern Coast Railway along the Tyrrhenian seacoast; that line was heavily damaged during World War II, and subsequently closed for good. Seaports Corsica is well connected to the European mainland (Italy and France) by various car ferry lines. The island's busiest seaport is Bastia, which saw more than 2.5 million passengers in 2012. The second busiest seaport is Ajaccio, followed by L'Île-Rousse and Calvi. Propriano and Porto Vecchio in the south also have smaller ferry docks and are seasonally served from France (Marseille), while Bonifacio's harbour is only frequented by smaller car ferries from the neighbouring island of Sardinia. The ferry companies serving Corsica are Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries (from Savona, Livorno and Piombino in Italy; Toulon and Nice in France), SNCM (from Marseille, Toulon and Nice in France), CMN – La Méridionale (from Marseille in France) and Moby Lines (from Livorno and Genoa in Italy). Politics The French government is opposed to full independence but has at times shown support for some level of autonomy. There is support on the island for proposals for greater autonomy, but polls show that a large majority of Corsicans are opposed to full independence. In 1972, the Italian company Montedison dumped toxic waste off the Corsican coast, creating what looked like red mud in waters around the island with the poisoning of the sea, the most visible effects being cetaceans found dead on the shores. At that time the Corsican people felt that the French government did not support them. To stop the poisoning, one ship carrying toxic waste from Italy was bombed. Some Nationalist groups that claim to support Corsican independence, such as the National Liberation Front of Corsica, have carried out a violent campaign since the 1970s that includes bombings and assassinations, usually targeting buildings and officials representing the French government or Corsicans themselves for political reasons. In 2000, Prime Minister Lionel Jospin agreed to grant increased autonomy to Corsica. The proposed autonomy for Corsica would have included greater protection for the Corsican language (Corsu), the island's traditional language, whose practice and teaching, like other regional or minority languages in France, had been discouraged in the past. According to the UNESCO classification, the Corsican language is currently in danger of becoming extinct. However, plans for increased autonomy were opposed by the Gaullist opposition in the French National Assembly, who feared that they would lead to calls for autonomy from other régions (such as Brittany, Alsace, or Provence), eventually threatening France's unity as a country. The Corsican autonomy referendum on 6 July 2003, a narrow majority of Corsican voters opposed a proposal by the government of Jean-Pierre Raffarin and then-Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy that would have abolished the two départements of the island and granted greater autonomy to the territorial collectivity of Corsica. On 13 December 2015, the regionalist coalition Pè a Corsica (English: For Corsica), supported by both Femu a Corsica and Corsica Libera and led by Gilles Siméoni, won the territorial elections with a percentage of 36.9%. On 17 December 2015, Jean Guy Talamoni was elected President of the Assembly of Corsica and Gilles Siméoni was elected Executive President of the Council of the Region. In addition, legislation granting Corsica a greater degree of autonomy was passed. On 16 March 2022, the interior minister, Gérald Darmanin, told regional newspaper Corse Matin before a two-day visit: "We are ready to go as far as autonomy – there you go, the word has been said." The comment came after two weeks of rioting in which 100 people were injured and public buildings and police were attacked with homemade explosive devices. In January 2025, the Assembly created an information mission on the institutional future of Corsica. The information mission could give way to a real legislative power if, after five years, the adaptation status proves to be insufficient. Bibliography Bertarelli, Luigi Vittorio (1929). Corsica. Guida d'Italia (in Italian). Rome: CTI. Carrington, Dorothy. 1971. Granite Island: A Portrait of Corsica. London: Longman. (reprinted by Penguin Books, 2008) Carrington, Dorothy. 1995. The Dream Hunters of Corsica. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Carrington, Dorothy. 1962. This Corsica: A Complete Guide. London: Hammond & Hammond. Loughlin, John. 1989. "Regionalism and Ethnic Nationalism in France: A Case-study of Corsica". Thesis. San Domenico, Italy: European University Institute. Loughlin, John, and Claude Olivesi (eds.). 1999. Autonomies insulaires: vers une politique de différence pour la Corse. Ajaccio: Editions Albiana. ISBN 2-905124-47-4 Lowe, John. 1988. Corsica: A Traveller's Guide. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-719-54429-3 Ravis-Giordani, Georges (1991). Le Guide de la Corse. Besançon: La Manufacture. ISBN 2-7377-0262-3. Saul, John Ralston. 1992. Voltaire's Bastards: The Dictatorship of Reason in the West. New York: Free Press; Maxwell Macmillan International. ISBN 0-02-927725-6 Thompson, Ian. 1971. Corsica (Islands series). Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 978-0-715-35329-5 Turnbull, Patrick. 1976. Corsica. London: Batsford. ISBN 978-0-713-43134-6 #france #travel #history #europe #culture
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Açores: Natureza Selvagem e Crateras Vulcânicas – Um Diário de Tiago Silva Olá, meus queridos exploradores do mundo! Tiago Silva aqui, diretamente de um dos recantos mais mágicos e indomáveis do nosso planeta. Preparem-se para uma viagem que vos vai prender a alma e encher os olhos de uma beleza quase irreal. Hoje, levo-vos a um lugar onde a natureza se exibe em todo o seu esplendor primordial, onde o passado geológico é palpável e a cultura se entrelaça com a paisagem de forma indelével: os Açores. Este arquipélago, que emerge imponente das profundezas do Oceano Atlântico Norte, é um tesouro escondido, um dos segredos mais bem guardados de #Portugal. Não é apenas um destino; é uma experiência sensorial, uma imersão num mundo onde o verde é mais verde, o azul mais profundo e a história ecoa em cada pedra e em cada onda. O Coração Pulsante de um Arquipélago Atlântico Os Açores são, na sua essência, uma criação vulcânica. Nove ilhas principais – São Miguel, Santa Maria, Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico, Faial, Flores e Corvo – espalham-se pela vasta extensão azul, como pérolas de um colar gigante que a própria Terra moldou. Cada uma delas é um universo à parte, com a sua identidade, os seus encantos e as suas histórias para contar. A origem vulcânica destas terras é a grande protagonista, a força invisível que esculpiu cada montanha, cada vale e cada lagoa. É impossível não sentir a energia telúrica a pulsar sob os pés, a recordar-nos que estamos num palco onde a geologia é uma força viva e constante. As paisagens são um testemunho eloquente da dança incessante entre o fogo e a água, entre a fúria da terra e a serenidade do oceano. São Miguel: A Ilha Verde e os Seus Segredos Comecemos por São Miguel, a maior e mais populosa das ilhas, muitas vezes apelidada de "Ilha Verde" – e com razão! Aqui, a vegetação luxuriante é uma explosão de vida, um manto esmeralda que cobre colinas e vales. Mas é nas suas crateras que reside grande parte da sua mística. Quem nunca sonhou em contemplar a Lagoa das Sete Cidades? Este cartão-postal açoriano é uma visão de tirar o fôlego. Do Miradouro da Vista do Rei, a paisagem desdobra-se num espetáculo de cores: a lagoa divide-se em duas, uma de um azul profundo, a outra de um verde vibrante, separadas apenas por uma ponte estreita. A lenda fala de um amor proibido entre uma princesa de olhos azuis e um pastor de olhos verdes, cujas lágrimas deram origem a estas águas mágicas. A atmosfera aqui é de pura contemplação, um convite à introspeção enquanto o vento suave sussurra segredos antigos. É um dos locais onde a #nature se revela mais poética. E depois, há a Lagoa do Fogo. Escondida no coração da ilha, dentro de uma cratera vulcânica, esta lagoa é um santuário de beleza intocada. O acesso é feito por trilhos que serpenteiam por uma vegetação densa e endémica, e a recompensa é uma vista panorâmica de águas cristalinas rodeadas por encostas íngremes e virgens. É um local classificado como Reserva Natural, e ao pisar o seu areal, sente-se uma paz profunda, quase mística. A neblina que por vezes a envolve só aumenta o seu encanto, transformando-a num cenário de conto de fadas. Mas São Miguel não é só lagos. As Furnas são outro capítulo fascinante da sua história geológica. Aqui, a Terra respira através de fumarolas e nascentes termais, criando um ambiente único onde a gastronomia se funde com a geologia. O famoso "Cozido das Furnas" é cozinhado em panelas enterradas no solo vulcânico, aproveitando o calor natural da Terra. O cheiro a enxofre no ar, as paisagens fumegantes e a experiência de provar um prato cozinhado desta forma ancestral é algo que nunca esqueceremos. É uma celebração da riqueza geotérmica da ilha, um verdadeiro banquete para os sentidos e um testemunho da inventividade humana em harmonia com a natureza. Terceira: História, Cor e Património Mundial Avançando para a Ilha Terceira, somos transportados para um cenário de cores vibrantes e uma riqueza histórica palpável. Angra do Heroísmo, a sua capital, é um tesouro arquitetónico, classificada como Património Mundial pela UNESCO. As suas ruas estreitas e sinuosas, ladeadas por edifícios coloridos e elaborados, contam histórias de navegadores, de batalhas e de uma época de ouro em que era um porto estratégico vital. A #architecture aqui é um espetáculo de elegância e resiliência, com os seus palacetes, igrejas e fortes que resistiram ao tempo e aos sismos. Passear por Angra é como viajar no tempo. Cada fachada, cada varanda, cada calçada parece sussurrar contos de uma #história rica e gloriosa. O Monte Brasil, uma antiga cratera vulcânica que se eleva majestosamente sobre a cidade, oferece vistas panorâmicas deslumbrantes e é um convite a explorar a sua fortaleza e os seus trilhos verdejantes. A Terceira é também a ilha das festas, das touradas à corda e de uma alegria contagiante que se manifesta na sua gente hospitaleira. Pico e Faial: Gigantes e Marinheiros O Pico é a ilha que abriga o ponto mais alto de Portugal, a montanha do Pico, uma presença majestosa que domina a paisagem. Subir ao seu cume é um desafio gratificante, recompensado com vistas que se estendem por quilómetros, abraçando as ilhas vizinhas. Mas o Pico é também a ilha do vinho, com as suas vinhas plantadas em "currais" – pequenos muros de pedra que protegem as videiras do vento e do sal do mar. Esta paisagem cultural da vinha da Ilha do Pico é outra joia classificada pela UNESCO, um testemunho da tenacidade e engenho dos seus habitantes. É um exemplo perfeito de como a #cultura local se adapta e prospera em cenários naturais desafiadores. Do outro lado do canal, encontra-se a Ilha do Faial, conhecida pelo seu porto cosmopolita, Horta, um ponto de encontro para velejadores de todo o mundo. Mas a paisagem mais marcante do Faial é, sem dúvida, o Vulcão dos Capelinhos. Este local, que nasceu de uma erupção submarina em 1957-58, é uma paisagem lunar, desolada e impressionante. As cinzas vulcânicas e as rochas escuras criam um contraste dramático com o azul do oceano, uma tela onde a força bruta da criação da Terra se manifesta de forma esmagadora. É um lembrete vívido da constante evolução geológica do arquipélago, um lugar que nos faz sentir pequenos perante a grandiosidade da natureza. A Flora e Fauna Endémicas: Um Jardim Flutuante A isolamento geográfico dos Açores, combinado com o seu clima temperado oceânico – caracterizado por temperaturas amenas, elevada humidade e chuvas frequentes que podem mudar rapidamente – criou um ecossistema único. A flora e fauna endémicas são um dos maiores tesouros do arquipélago. Aqui, encontramos a Laurissilva, uma floresta relíquia do Terciário, que outrora cobria grande parte do sul da #Europa. Caminhar por estes bosques é como entrar num túnel do tempo, onde a luz filtra-se através das copas densas, e o ar é carregado com o cheiro a terra húmida e vida selvagem. As famosas hortênsias, com as suas cores vibrantes de azul e roxo, alinham-se nas estradas e campos, criando um espetáculo visual que é a imagem de marca dos Açores. A vida marinha também é abundante e espetacular. Os Açores são um dos melhores locais do mundo para a observação de baleias e golfinhos, um santuário para estas majestosas criaturas do oceano. A rica biodiversidade marinha é um reflexo da saúde dos seus ecossistemas e da sua posição privilegiada no Atlântico. O Legado Humano: De Navegadores a Emigrantes A história humana dos Açores é tão fascinante quanto a sua geologia. Descobertas por navegadores portugueses no século XV, estas ilhas rapidamente se tornaram um ponto de paragem crucial nas rotas marítimas do Atlântico. A sua posição estratégica transformou-as num entreposto vital para o comércio e a navegação entre a Europa, a América e a África. A colonização das ilhas foi um feito notável de resiliência e adaptação. Os primeiros povoadores enfrentaram desafios imensos, transformando terras virgens e vulcânicas em férteis campos de cultivo e em comunidades vibrantes. A atividade baleeira, embora controversa nos dias de hoje, foi uma indústria que marcou profundamente a identidade de algumas ilhas, deixando um legado de coragem, sacrifício e uma profunda ligação ao mar. A emigração, sobretudo para os Estados Unidos e Canadá, é outra faceta importante da história açoriana. Muitas famílias procuraram melhores oportunidades além-mar, mas a ligação às suas raízes e à sua terra natal manteve-se forte, criando uma diáspora global que orgulhosamente preserva a sua identidade açoriana. Esta história de partida e regresso, de saudade e esperança, é parte integrante da alma açoriana. Uma Viagem Inesquecível Os Açores não são apenas um conjunto de ilhas; são uma promessa de aventura, de descoberta e de uma profunda conexão com a natureza e com uma cultura rica e resiliente. Desde as paisagens lunares dos Capelinhos até às lagoas místicas escondidas em crateras vulcânicas, passando pelas cidades histó #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
ようこそ。日本の美しき歴史と文化の旅へ。 姫路城: 白鷺が舞い降りた名城 日本の古都、京都から西へ向かう新幹線に揺られ、ふと窓外に目をやれば、播磨の平野に突如として現れる、あまりにもまばゆい白亜の城郭。それが、世界にその名を轟かせる「姫路城」、別名「白鷺城」です。私は田中ゆみ。この国の歴史と文化、そして自然が織りなす深遠な美を求めて旅をする者として、何度この城の前に立ち尽くし、その圧倒的な存在感に言葉を失ったことでしょう。まるで大空を舞う白鷺が、一瞬の静寂とともに地上に舞い降りたかのような、その優雅にして力強い姿は、訪れる者の心に深く刻み込まれます。 この城は単なる歴史的建造物ではありま��ん。それは、日本の精神性、美意識、そして幾多の戦乱を生き抜いた人々の知恵と願いが結晶化した、生きた証なのです。今回は、その壮麗な姫路城の全貌を、私の心に響く言葉で紐解いていきたいと思います。 悠久の時を刻む白亜の殿堂：姫路城の全貌 姫路城は、兵庫県姫路市、古くは播磨国飾磨郡に位置し、姫山と鷺山という二つの丘陵を中心に据え、巧みに地形を利用して築かれた平山城の傑作です。その威容は、日本が誇る近世城郭の典型でありながら、他に類を見ない独自の美学を湛えています。その天守群は、まるで天空へと伸びる純白の巨塔のようであり、連立式天守と呼ばれる複雑な構造は、見る角度によって様々な表情を見せ、私たちを飽きさせません。 この城の最も特筆すべきは、江戸時代初期に建設された主要な建築物が、奇跡的なまでに良好な状態で現存しているという事実でしょう。大天守、小天守、そしてこれらを繋ぐ渡櫓など、主要な8棟は国の至宝である「国宝」として厳かに護持されています。さらに、櫓、門、塀といった74棟に及ぶ多種多様な建造物もまた、「重要文化財」としてその価値を認められています。これら一つ一つの石垣、木材、瓦に、悠久の時の流れと、それを守り抜いた人々の情熱が宿っているかのようです。 中堀の内側に広がる主郭部を含む広大な城域は、「姫路城跡」として国の「特別史跡」に指定されており、その歴史的・文化的な重要性は計り知れません。そして、1993年（平成5年）12月には、人類共通の遺産としてユネスコの世界遺産（文化遺産）リストにも堂々とその名を連ねました。これは、この城が日本の枠を超え、全世界にとってかけがえのない宝であることを意味しています。また、「日本100名城」の一つに選定されていることはもちろん、「国宝五城」「三名城」「三大平山城・三大連立式平山城」という数々の称号が、その比類なき価値を物語っています。 姫路城の建築様式は、城郭建築の頂点とも言える連立式天守であり、大天守を中心に東小天守、西小天守、乾小天守が、それぞれ渡櫓で結ばれ、あたかも複雑な生命体のように一体感をなしています。この構造は、防御機能の強化と同時に、見る者に圧倒的な美意識を訴えかけるものです。白漆喰で塗られ���壁面は、播磨の陽光を反射してまばゆいばかりの輝きを放ち、その姿は遠くからでも一目でそれと分かります。 四季折々に、姫路城はその表情を変え、訪れる者を魅了します。春には、城郭を囲む桜並木が一斉に花開き、純白の天守と淡いピンク色の花々が織りなすコントラストは、まるで絵画のような絶景を生み出します。新緑の季節には、生命力に満ちた緑が城の白さを際立たせ、夏には青い空の下で一層その威厳を増します。秋には、紅葉が城壁を彩り、歴史の深みを感じさせ、そして冬、雪が舞い降りれば、白銀の世界にそびえ立つ姫路城は、息をのむような幻想的な美しさを見せます。これらの景観は、#自然 の豊かさと、人間が創り出した建築美が見事に調和していることの証と言えるでしょう。 名に秘められた歴史と伝説：白鷺城の呼称 姫路城が「白鷺城」と称される所以には、いくつかの説が語り継がれていますが、そのどれもが、この城の持つ神秘性と美しさを深く物語っています。 まず、天守が築かれている「姫山」の古名にまで遡ります。「日女路（ひめじ）の丘」と称されたこの地は、『��磨国風土記』にも「日女道丘（ひめじおか）」としてその名が見られます。そこには、大汝命（大国主命）の船が火明命によって嵐で転覆させられた際、積み荷の中から蚕子（ひめこ）が流れ着いたという神話が記されており、これが山の名の由来とされています。やがて「姫道」を経て「姫路」という地名が定着しました。かつては他戸親王の娘、富姫に由来するという説も存在しましたが、『播磨国風土記』の再発見により、より深い歴史的背景が明らかになったのです。 この姫山は、かつて桜が多く咲き誇ったことから「桜木山」とも呼ばれ、それが転じて「鷺山（さぎやま）」と呼ばれるようになったと伝えられています。時には、天守のある丘が姫山、西の丸のある丘が鷺山と区別されることもあります。『万葉集』巻9・1776に収められた「絶等寸（たゆらぎ）の山の峰の上の桜花咲かむ春へは君し偲はむ」という歌に詠まれた「たゆらぎの山」を、井上通泰や金子元臣といった学者たちは姫山のことだと考証しました。『姫路城史』の著者である橋本政次や『姫路市史（1919年）』はさらに、「絶等寸」を「サクラ��（桜木）」と訓ずるべきだと論じ、この地の豊かな自然と文化の繋がりを示唆しています。一方で、吉田金彦は「姫路」を「日村道（ひむれじ）」、すなわち「日数を重ね隔てた遠い村への道」が語源であるとし、「絶等寸山」は西の丸の鷺山を指し、「タユラギ」は「古代の共同労働集団の統括者」を意味するという、また異なる視点も提示しており、その名の由来一つにも、様々な解釈と深い思索が込められています。 そして、別名「白鷺城（はくろじょう）」の由来に関しては、橋本政次氏の『姫路城の話』に、推論を含め以下の4説が挙げられています。「鷺山」に置かれていることからの連想: 城が築かれた地が「鷺山」と呼ばれていたことから、自然にその名が結びついたという説は、地理と城名の融合を示しています。 白漆喰で塗られた城壁の美しさ: これこそが、多くの人が「白鷺城」の名の由来として最も納得する理由でしょう。その純白の城壁は、見る者に清らかで優雅な印象を与え、まるで天空を舞う白鷺の姿を地上に具現化したかのようです。この白亜の美は、日本の伝統的な建築技術��美意識が融合した結晶であり、観る者の心に深く響きます。 ゴイサギなど白鷺と総称される鳥が多く住んでいたから: かつてこの地には、多くの白鷺が飛来し、その優雅な姿が城の周囲を彩っていたのかもしれません。#自然 と共存する城の姿は、日本の文化と深く結びついています。 黒い壁から「烏城（うじょう）」「金烏城（きんうじょう）」とも呼ばれる岡山城との対比: 近隣の岡山城が黒を基調とした「烏城」と呼ばれることから、対照的に白を基調とする姫路城が「白鷺城」と称されるようになったという説は、日本の美意識における「陰と陽」の対比を見事に表現しています。「白鷺城」の読み方については、「はくろじょう」と「しらさぎじょう」の二つが存在し、村田英雄の歌曲『白鷺の城』のように「しらさぎ」と読む例もあります。橋本政次氏は漢学的な名称であることから「はくろじょう」を正しいとしましたが、現代では『日本歴史大事典』や『もういちど読む山川日本史』のように「しらさぎじょう」のみを掲載するもの、あるいは『日本史事典』や『ビジュアルワイド 日本名城百選��のように両方を併記するものも見られます。姫路市内では市立の「白鷺（はくろ）小中学校」のように学校名に用いられたり、校歌にも「白鷺城」または「白鷺」という言葉が多用されており、市民にとってこの名は深い郷土愛と誇りの象徴となっています。戦前の『姫路市郷土唱歌』にも「白鷺城」や「池田輝政」の名が歌い込まれていたことからも、その歴史的な重みが伺えます。 他にも、姫路城には以下のような別名があります。不戦の城: 幕末の動乱期に新政府軍に包囲されながらも大規模な戦火を免れ、第二次世界大戦中の2度の空襲では、大天守最上階に直撃した焼夷弾が不発弾となるという奇跡的な幸運に恵まれました。一度も大規模な戦火にさらされることなく、甚大な被害を被ることがなかったこの城は、平和への願いと、人々の祈りが形になったかのような存在です。 白い不死鳥: 特に第二次世界大戦の空襲を奇跡的に免れ、焦土と化した街の中で白く輝き続けた姿は、市民に復興への勇気と希望を与えました。灰燼の中から立ち上がる不死鳥の如く、この城は何度となく困難を乗り越え、そ���美しい姿を現代に伝えています。時代を超えて築かれし堅牢なる美：その歴史の軌跡 姫路城の歴史は、日本の激動の時代を映す鏡です。その築城は、遥か南北朝時代にまで遡ります。 南北朝時代・戦国時代 鎌倉幕府の終焉を迎える1333年（元弘3年）、元弘の乱において護良親王の令旨を奉じた播磨国守護、赤松則村が挙兵。上洛の途上、姫山にあった称名寺を拠点に縄張りを施し、一族の小寺頼季にその守備を命じたのが、姫路城の歴史の第一歩とされています。南北朝の争乱が激化する中、則村は足利尊氏に呼応して再び挙兵し、1346年（南朝：正平元年、北朝：貞和2年）、次男の赤松貞範が称名寺を麓に移し、姫山に「姫山城」を築城しました。その後、貞範が庄山城へ本拠を移すと、再び小寺頼季が城代となり、以来、小寺氏が代々この地の守護を務めることになります。 1441年（嘉吉元年）、赤松満祐・教康父子が嘉吉の乱を起こして山名宗全らの討伐軍に攻められ、城山城で自害し赤松氏は一時断絶。これに伴い、小寺職治も討死しました。その後、播磨国守護は山名氏となり、その家臣である太田垣主殿佐が城代となります。しかし、1458年（長禄2年）の長禄の変で後南朝から神爾を取り戻した功績により、赤松満祐の弟の孫である赤松政則の時に赤松氏の再興が許されます。1467年（応仁元年）に始まった応仁の乱では、山名氏に対立する細川勝元方に与した政則が、弱体化した山名氏から播磨国を奪還し、姫路城に本丸、鶴見丸、亀居丸といった曲輪を築き、その規模を拡大しました。 1469年（文明元年）、政則は隣国但馬国の山名氏に備えるため、新たに築いた置塩城に本拠地を移し、小寺豊職が城代となりました。その後、豊職の子である政隆が城代となり、御着城の築城を開始。1519年（永正16年）には政隆が御着城へ本拠を移し、子の則職が城代を務めることになります。 そして1545年（天文14年）、則職は御着城へ移り、家臣の黒田重隆に姫路城を預けます。黒田重隆・職隆父子は、主君である小寺政職の許可を得て、御着城の支城として1555年（天文24年）から1561年（永禄4年）の間に、居館程度の小規模なものだった姫路城を、姫山の地形を活かした中世城郭へと拡張したと考えられています。永禄4年の『正明寺���書』に「姫道御溝」、また『助太夫畠地売券』に城の構えがあるとの記述が見られることから、これらを姫路城の始まりと捉える説もあります。職隆は「百間長屋」を建て、貧しい人々や下級武士、職人、行商人などを住まわせ、彼らを配下に組み入れたり、情報収集の拠点とするなど、城下町の基盤を築きました。 1567年（永禄10年）には、職隆の子である黒田孝高（後の官兵衛・如水）が城代となり、その知略と武勇をもって姫路城を守護します。1568年（永禄11年）の青山・土器山の戦いでは、赤松政秀軍約3,000人に対し、黒田軍（職隆・孝高父子）はわずか約300人という劣勢ながらも、姫路城から果敢に撃って出て赤松軍を撃退するという輝かしい戦果を挙げました。孝高は1573年（天正元年）まで城代を務め、その間に姫路城は播磨の要衝としての重要性を確立していきます。 安土桃山時代 戦国の世が佳境を迎える1576年（天正4年）、天下統一を目指す織田信長の命を受け、羽柴秀吉が播磨へ進駐します。播磨国内は織田氏につく勢力と、中国路の毛利氏を頼る勢力とで激しく対立しましたが、最終的には織田方��勝利し、毛利方についた小寺氏は没落しました。しかし、小寺氏の家臣でありながら早くから秀吉に誼を通じ、その才を認められていた黒田孝高は、そのまま秀吉に仕えることになります。1577年（天正5年）、孝高は二の丸に居を移し、本丸を秀吉に譲るという異例の忠誠を示しました。 1580年（天正8年）、秀吉は三木合戦で三木城を、続いて英賀城などを攻略し、播磨を完全に平定します。この時、孝高は秀吉に「本拠地として姫路城に居城すること」を進言し、自らは市川を挟んだ南西の国府山城に移り、姫路城を秀吉に献上しました。秀吉は同年4月から翌年3月にかけて大規模な改修に着手。姫山を中心とした近世城郭へと姫路城を生まれ変わらせ、当時最先端の築城技術であった石垣で城郭を囲み、太閤丸に3層と伝えられる天守を建築しました。この大改修により、姫路城は播磨国の中心としての地位を不動のものとし、南部に大規模な城下町を形成。姫路の北を走っていた山陽道を城南の城下町を通るように付け替えるなど、都市整備も積極的に行われました。同年10月28日には、龍野町に諸公事役免除の制札を与え、その最初の条文には「市日之事、如先規罷立事（市場の日のことは、以前の規定に従って取りやめることとする）」とあり、これは4月の英賀城落城の際に姫路山下に招き入れられた英賀の百姓や町人たちが龍野町に移住したとする説の根拠となっています。1581年（天正9年）、秀吉は姫路城で盛大な大茶会を催し、その存在感を天下に示しました。 江戸時代 関ヶ原の戦いを経て、天下泰平の世が到来すると、姫路城は池田輝政の手に渡ります。輝政は、1 #japan #travel #history #culture #nature
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Coimbra: Onde a História Canta e a Tradição Vive Eterna Olá, meus caros aventureiros e amantes de viagens! Aqui é o Tiago Silva, e hoje levo-vos numa jornada inesquecível a um dos corações pulsantes de #Portugal, uma cidade que respira séculos de história e onde cada pedra parece sussurrar contos de reis, estudantes e poetas. Estou a falar, claro, de Coimbra, a joia do centro do nosso país, uma cidade que é muito mais do que um ponto no mapa – é uma experiência, um sentimento, uma parte indelével da alma portuguesa. Aninhada na Região Centro, mais especificamente na sub-região de Coimbra (NUT III), esta capital de distrito é um universo em si. O seu município, com os seus 319,40 km², é um mosaico de paisagens e comunidades, lar de cerca de 140.796 almas (dados de 2021), que vivem e respiram a sua essência. Coimbra é uma cidade que se estende e se abraça com os seus vizinhos, limitada a norte pela Mealhada, a leste por Penacova, Vila Nova de Poiares e Miranda do Corvo, a sul por Condeixa-a-Nova, a oeste por Montemor-o-Velho e a noroeste por Cantanhede. Esta localização privilegiada, quase a meio caminho entre as efervescentes cidades de Lisboa e do Porto, confere-lhe uma importância estratégica inegável, funcionando como um nó vital no tecido do nosso país. Mas Coimbra é, acima de tudo, sinónimo de uma identidade que transcende a geografia: é a cidade universitária por excelência. Uma das mais antigas urbes portuguesas, a sua reputação está intrinsecamente ligada ao ensino e à #cultura, um legado que se manifesta em cada esquina, em cada voz de estudante que ecoa pelas suas ruelas. Preparados para desvendar os seus segredos? Então, venham comigo! O Coração Académico: Onde o Saber Ganha Asas Não podemos falar de Coimbra sem nos rendermos à majestade e à gravitas da sua Universidade. A Universidade de Coimbra não é apenas uma instituição de ensino; é um monumento vivo, um guardião do conhecimento e da liberdade. Fundada em 1290, pela visão iluminada de D. Dinis, como o "Estudo Geral Português", a sua história é tão fascinante quanto a própria cidade. Inicialmente, a sua casa foi Lisboa, mas, num vaivém histórico entre as duas cidades, foi em 1537 que Coimbra a acolheu definitivamente, nas pitorescas margens do lendário rio Mondego. E que bom que assim foi! Desde então, a Universidade de Coimbra tem sido um farol, não só para #Portugal, mas para toda a #Europa. É uma das mais antigas universidades do continente e, sem dúvida, uma das maiores e mais influentes do nosso país. A sua população estudantil, que ronda os 37.000 jovens, entre o ensino superior público não politécnico, o politécnico e o privado, injeta uma energia vibrante e uma juventude contagiante na cidade. Coimbra é, por isso, um caldeirão de ideias, de sonhos e de futuro. Mas a influência da Universidade vai muito além das salas de aula. Na história contemporânea, os seus estudantes foram uma força motriz na defesa dos ideais de liberdade e democracia, erguendo a voz e a coragem contra a ditadura do Estado Novo. Esta é uma faceta de Coimbra que me enche de orgulho: uma cidade onde o saber não é apenas acumulado, mas também usado para moldar um futuro mais justo e livre. E o reconhecimento não tardou a chegar. No dia 22 de junho de 2013, a Universidade de Coimbra, juntamente com a sua Alta e a Sofia, foi merecidamente declarada Património Mundial pela UNESCO. Caminhar por estes espaços é sentir a história, é ser parte de um legado que é celebrado em todo o mundo. É uma experiência que recomendo a todos os que procuram uma #viagem com significado e profundidade. Coimbra, Capital do Reino: Berço de Reis e de uma Nação Antes de Lisboa assumir o papel principal, Coimbra deteve a honra de ser a capital do Reino de Portugal, até 1255. Esta é uma cidade que viu nascer reis, que abrigou os alicerces da nossa nação. É nas suas terras que repousa D. Afonso Henriques, o nosso primeiro rei, no sagrado Mosteiro de Santa Cruz – o que foi o primeiro Panteão Nacional do país. Visitar este local é sentir um arrepio na espinha, é estar face a face com o início de tudo, com a bravura e a determinação que forjaram a nossa identidade. As ruas estreitas, os pátios escondidos, as escadinhas sinuosas e os arcos medievais de Coimbra são testemunhas silenciosas de uma história grandiosa. Seis reis da Primeira Dinastia nasceram aqui, entre estas muralhas que contam histórias de glória e de desafios. É uma das cidades mais antigas da Europa, e cada passo que damos é um mergulho num passado que se recusa a ser esquecido. Das Raízes Romanas ao Esplendor Árabe A história de Coimbra é uma tapeçaria rica e complexa, tecida ao longo de milénios. Os Romanos, mestres na arte de edificar cidades, chamaram-na Emínio (Aeminium), erguendo-a majestosamente sobre a colina que domina o rio Mondego. Com o tempo, a sua importância cresceu, e Coimbra tornou-se sede de Diocese, substituindo a vizinha cidade romana de Conímbriga – e é desta última que deriva o seu nome atual, um testemunho da continuidade e da evolução. Depois, em 711, os mouros chegaram à Península Ibérica, e Coimbra transformou-se em Kulūmriyya. Sob o domínio islâmico, floresceu como um vital entreposto comercial, uma ponte entre o norte cristão e o sul árabe, abrigando uma próspera comunidade moçárabe. Imaginar os mercados vibrantes, os sons de diferentes línguas, os aromas exóticos – é viajar no tempo, é sentir a riqueza de uma época de intercâmbio cultural. A Reconquista foi um período de intensas lutas. Coimbra foi tomada por Hermenegildo Guterres em 878, tornando-se capital do Condado de Coimbra, apenas para ser atacada por Almançor em 986 e recuperada para o domínio muçulmano em 987. A cidade só seria definitivamente reconquistada em 1064, durante a campanha das Beiras, por Fernando Magno de Leão, após um longo e extenuante cerco de seis meses, entre 20 de janeiro e 9 de julho. Que resiliência, que espírito de luta estas muralhas testemunharam! Com a reconquista, Coimbra renasceu das cinzas, emergindo como a cidade mais importante a sul do rio Douro, capital de um vasto condado governado pelo moçárabe Sesnando. Em 1094, foi integrada no Condado Portucalense, e o conde D. Henrique e a rainha D. Teresa escolheram-na como sua residência, solidificando o seu estatuto. Apesar de ter sido atacada em 1116 e sitiada em 1117, foi na segurança das suas muralhas que viria a nascer o segundo rei de Portugal, Sancho I, que, em 1131, a elevou a capital do condado, substituindo Guimarães. No século XII, Coimbra já apresentava uma estrutura urbana clara e fascinante: a cidade alta, designada por Alta ou Almedina, era o domínio dos aristocratas, dos clérigos e, mais tarde, dos estudantes; enquanto a Baixa, junto ao rio, fervilhava com o comércio, o artesanato e os bairros populares ribeirinhos. Uma divisão que ainda hoje se sente na atmosfera das suas diferentes zonas. Não posso deixar de mencionar a lendária lealdade do alcaide-mor Martim de Freitas. Nas lutas entre D. Sancho II e o seu irmão, D. Afonso III, Martim de Freitas recusou-se a entregar as chaves do castelo de Coimbra sem antes confirmar a morte de D. Sancho II em Toledo, a quem prestara vassalagem. Só após essa confirmação o castelo foi entregue a Afonso III. Não foi tomado, foi entregue. Uma história de honra e fidelidade que nos fala de um tempo de valores inabaláveis. Desde meados do século XVI, a história da cidade e da Universidade tornaram-se quase indissociáveis, um entrelaçar de destinos que só no século XIX viu Coimbra começar a expandir-se para além dos seus limites históricos, abraçando o futuro sem esquecer o passado. O Abraço do Mondego e a Alma da Cidade Coimbra é acarinhada pelo rio Mondego, um rio que nasce na majestosa Serra da Estrela e a atravessa no sentido Este-Oeste, oferecendo-lhe não só uma beleza cénica inigualável, mas também uma ligação vital à natureza circundante. Passear pelas margens do Mondego, sentir a brisa suave, observar as águas espelhadas que refletem a cidade, é uma experiência de pura serenidade e um lembrete constante da beleza natural que nos rodeia. É um convite à contemplação e ao relaxamento, um refúgio da agitação #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
Bienvenue! Let us embark on an unforgettable #journey to the heart of #France. The French Riviera, known in French as the Côte d'Azur (French: [kot dazyʁ] ; Provençal: Còsta d'Azur, pronounced [ˈkwɔstɔ daˈzyʀ]; lit. 'Azure Coast'), is the Mediterranean coastline of the southeast corner of #France. There is no official boundary, but it is considered to be the coastal area of the Alpes-Maritimes department, extending from the rock formation Massif de l'Esterel to Menton, at the France–Italy border, although some other sources place the western boundary further west around Saint-Tropez or Toulon. The coast is entirely within the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France. The Principality of Monaco is a semi-enclave within the region, surrounded on three sides by France and fronting the Mediterranean. The French Riviera contains the seaside resorts of Cap-d'Ail, Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat, Villefranche-sur-Mer, Antibes, Juan-les-Pins, Cannes, and Théoule-sur-Mer. Riviera is an Italian word that originates from the #ancient Ligurian territory of Italy, wedged between the Var and Magra rivers. Côte d'Azur is originally a nickname given by France to the County of Nice after its annexation in 1860, because the climate was similar to that of the north of Italy, even in winter, with "a sky as blue as its sea". When the Mistral (Northwest) and the Tramontane (North) winds are blowing in the Languedoc and Provence areas, the temperature of the Mediterranean can be very cool in summer. This phenomenon is observed very little or not at all on the coast between the French Riviera and the Italian Riviera. This coastline was one of the first modern resort areas. It began as a winter health resort for the British upper class at the end of the 18th century. With the arrival of the railway in the mid-19th century, it became the playground and vacation spot of British, Russian, and other aristocrats, such as Queen Victoria, Tsar Alexander II and King Edward VII, when he was Prince of Wales. In the summer, it also played home to many members of the Rothschild family. In the first half of the 20th century, it was frequented by artists and writers, including Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Francis Bacon, Edith Wharton, Somerset Maugham and Aldous Huxley, as well as wealthy Americans and Europeans. After World War II, it became a popular tourist destination and convention site. Many celebrities, such as Elton John and Brigitte Bardot, have homes in the region. Officially, the French Riviera is home to 163 nationalities with 83,962 foreign residents, although estimates of the number of non-French nationals living in the area are often much higher. Its largest city is Nice, which has a population of 340,017 as of 2017. The city is the centre of a métropole—Nice-Côte d'Azur—bringing together 49 communes and more than 540,000 inhabitants and 943,000 in the urban area. Nice is home to Nice Côte d'Azur Airport, France's third-busiest airport (after Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport), which is on an area of partially reclaimed coastal land at the western end of the Promenade des Anglais. A second airport at Mandelieu was once the region's commercial airport, but is now mainly used by private and business aircraft. The A8 autoroute runs through the region, as does the old main road generally known as the Route nationale 7 (officially now DN7 in Var and D6007 in Alpes-Maritimes). High-speed trains serve the coastal region and inland to Grasse, with the TGV Sud-Est service reaching Nice-Ville station in five and a half hours from #Paris. The French Riviera has a total population of more than two million. It is home to a high tech and science park (French: technopole) at Sophia-Antipolis (north of Antibes) and a research and technology centre at the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis. The region has 35,000 students, of whom 25 percent are working toward a doctorate. The French Riviera is a major yachting and cruising area with several marinas along its coast. According to the Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency, each year the Riviera hosts 50 percent of the world's superyacht fleet, with 90 percent of all superyachts visiting the region's coast at least once in their lifetime. As a tourist centre, the French Riviera benefits from 310 to 330 days of sunshine per year, 115 kilometres (71 miles) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants. Etymology Origin of term The term French Riviera comes by analogy with the term Italian Riviera, which extends east of the French Riviera (from Ventimiglia to La Spezia). As early as the 19th century, the British referred to the region as the Riviera or the French Riviera, usually referring to the eastern part of the coast, between Monaco and the Italian border. Riviera is an Italian noun which means "coastline". The name Côte d'Azur was given to the coast by the writer Stéphen Liégeard in his book, La Côte d’azur, published in December 1887. Liégeard was born in Dijon, in the French department of Côte-d'Or, and adapted that name by substituting the azure colour of the Mediterranean for the gold of Côte-d'Or. In Occitan (Niçard and Provençal) and French, the only usual names are Còsta d'Azur in Occitan and Côte d'Azur in French. A term like "French Riviera" (Ribiera Francesa in Occitan, Riviera Française in French) would only be used in literal translation, or adaptations of it. For instance, in French, "Riviera Française" is found in the online Larousse encyclopedia to refer to the holidays of a group of English workers (moreover, in Occitan, the word ribiera "coastline" mostly works as a common name, whereas in French, the old-fashioned term Rivière de Gênes was used to refer to the Italian Riviera whose center is Genoa). Disputes over the extent of the Riviera and the Côte d'Azur Côte d'Azur and the French Riviera have no official boundaries. Some sources put the western boundary at Saint-Tropez. Others include Saint Tropez, Hyères or Toulon in the Var (departement), or as far as Cassis in the Bouches-du-Rhône departement. In her 1955 novel, The Talented Mr. Ripley, Patricia Highsmith describes the Riviera as including all of the coast between Toulon and the Italian border. #history From prehistory to the Bronze Age The region of the French Riviera has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Primitive tools dating to between 1,000,000 and 1,050,000 years ago were discovered in the Grotte du Vallonnet, near Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, with stones and bones of animals, including bovines, rhinoceros, and bison. At Terra Amata (380,000 to 230,000 years ago), near the Nice Port, a fireplace was discovered that is one of the oldest found in Europe. Stone dolmens, monuments from the Bronze Age, can be found near Draguignan, while the Valley of Marvels (Vallée des Merveilles) near Mount Bégo, at 2,000 m (6,600 ft) elevation, is presumed to have been an outdoor religious sanctuary, having over 40,000 drawings of people and animals, dated to about 2000 BC. Greek influence Beginning in the 7th century BC, Greek sailors from Phocaea in Asia Minor began to visit and then build emporia along the Côte d'Azur. Emporia were started at Olbia (Hyères); Antipolis (Antibes) and Nikaia (Nice). These settlements, which traded with the inhabitants of the interior, became rivals of the Etruscans and Phoenicians, who also visited the Côte d'Azur. Roman colonization In 8 BC, the Emperor Augustus built an imposing trophy monument at La Turbie (the Trophy of the Alps or Trophy of Augustus) to mark the pacification of the region. Roman towns, monuments and amphitheatres were built along the Côte d'Azur and many still survive, such as the amphitheatre and baths at Cimiez, above Nice, and the amphitheatre, Roman walls and other remains at Fréjus. Barbarians and Christians Roman Provence reached the height of its power and prosperity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. In the mid-3rd century, Germanic peoples began to invade the region, and Roman power weakened. In the same period, Christianity started to become a powerful force in the region. The first cathedrals were built in the 4th century, and bishoprics were established: in Fréjus at the end of the 4th century, Cimiez and Vence in 439, and Antibes in 442. The oldest Christian structure still in existence on the Côte d'Azur is the baptistery of Fréjus #cathedral, built at the end of the 5th century, which also saw the founding of the first monastery in the region, Lerins Monastery on an island off the coast at Cannes. The fall of the Western Roman #empire in the first half of the 5th century was followed by invasions of Provence by the Visigoths, the Burgundians and the Ostrogoths. There was then a long period of wars and dynastic quarrels, which in turn led to further invasions by the Saracens and the Normans in the 9th century. The Counts of Provence and the House of Grimaldi Some peace was restored to the coast by the establishment in 879 of a new kingdom of Provence, ruled first by the Bosonids dynasty (879–1112), then by the Catalans (1112–1246), and finally by the Angevins (1246–1382, elder branch, 1382–1483 (younger branch). In the 13th century, another powerful political force appeared, the House of Grimaldi. Descended from a Genoese nobleman expelled from Genoa by his rivals in 1271, members of the different branches of the Grimaldis took power in Monaco, Antibes and Nice, and built castles at Grimaud, Cagnes-sur-Mer and Antibes. Albert II, the current Prince of Monaco, is a descendant of the Grimaldis. In 1388, the city of Nice and its surrounding territory, from the mouth of the Var to the Italian border, were separated from Provence and came under the protection of the House of Savoy. The territory was called the Comté de Nice after 1526, and thereafter its language, history and #culture were separate from those of Provence until 1860, when it was re-attached to France under Napoleon III. Provence retained its formal independence until 1480, when the last Comte de Provence, René I of Naples, died and left the Comté to his nephew, Charles du Maine, who in turn left it to Louis XI of France. In 1486, Provence formally became part of France. Popularity with the British upper class in 18th and 19th centuries Until the end of the 18th century, the area later known as the Côte d'Azur was a remote and impoverished region, known mostly for fishing, olive groves and the production of flowers for perfume (manufactured in Grasse). A new phase began when the coast became a fashionable health resort for the British upper class in the late 18th century. The first British traveller to describe its benefits was the novelist Tobias Smollett, who visited Nice in 1763 when it was still an Italian city within the Kingdom of Sardinia. Smollett brought Nice and its warm winter climate to the attention of the British aristocracy with Travels through France and Italy, written in 1765. At about the same time, a Scottish doctor, John Brown, became famous for prescribing what he called climato-therapy, a change in climate, to cure a variety of diseases including tuberculosis, known then as consumption. The French historian Paul Gonnet wrote that, as a result, Nice was filled with "a colony of pale and listless English women and listless sons of nobility near death". In 1834, a British nobleman and politician named Henry Peter Brougham, First Baron Brougham and Vaux, who had played an important part in the abolition of the slave trade, travelled with his unwell daughter to the south of France, intending to go to Italy. A cholera epidemic in Italy forced him to stop at Cannes, where he enjoyed the climate and scenery so much that he bought land and built a villa. He began to spend his winters there and, owing to his fame, others followed: Cannes soon had a small British enclave. Robert Louis Stevenson was a later British visitor who came for his health. In 1882 he rented a villa called La Solitude at Hyères, where he wrote much of A Child's Garden of Verses. Railway, gambling and royalty In 1864, six years after Nice became part of France following the Second Italian War of Independence the first railway was completed, making Nice and the Riviera accessible to visitors from all over Europe. One hundred thousand visitors arrived in 1865. By 1874, residents of foreign enclaves in Nice, most of whom were British, numbered 25,000. In the mid-19th century, British and French entrepreneurs began to see the potential of promoting tourism along the Côte d'Azur. At the time, gambling was illegal in France and Italy. In 1856, the Prince of Monaco, Charles III, began constructing a casino in Monaco, which was called a health spa to avoid criticism by the church. The casino was a failure, but in 1863 the Prince signed an agreement with François Blanc, a French businessman already operating a successful casino at Baden-Baden (southwestern Germany), to build a resort and new casino. Blanc arranged for steamships and carriages to take visitors from Nice to Monaco, and built hotels, gardens and a casino in a place called Spélugues. At the suggestion of his mother, Princess Caroline, Charles III renamed the place Monte Carlo after himself. When the railway reached Monte Carlo in 1870, many thousands of visitors began to arrive and the population of the principality of Monaco doubled. The French Riviera soon became a popular destination for European royalty. Just days after the railway reached Nice in 1864, Tsar Alexander II of Russia visited on a private train, followed soon afterwards by Napoleon III and then Leopold II, the King of the Belgians. Queen Victoria was a frequent visitor. In 1882 she stayed in Menton, and in 1891 spent several weeks at the Grand Hotel at Grasse. In 1892 she stayed at the Hotel Cost-belle in Hyères. In successive years from 1895 to 1899 she stayed in Cimiez in the hills above Nice. First, in 1895 and 1896, she patronised the Grand Hôtel, while in later years she and her staff took over the entire west wing of the Excelsior Hôtel Régina, which had been designed with her needs specifically in mind (part of which later became the home and studio of the renowned artist Henri Matisse). She travelled with an entourage of between sixty and a hundred, including chef, ladies in waiting, dentist, Indian servants, her own bed and her own food. The Prince of Wales was a regular visitor to Cannes, starting in 1872. He frequented the Club Nautique, a private club on the Croisette, the fashionable seafront boulevard of Cannes. He visited there each spring for a two-month period, observing yacht races from shore while the royal yacht, Britannia, was sailed by professional crewmen. After he became King in 1901, he never again visited the French Riviera. By the end of the 19th century the Côte d'Azur began to attract artistic painters, who appreciated the climate, the bright colors and clear light. Among them were Auguste Renoir, who settled in Cagnes-sur-Mer and in Mougins, Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso. Inter-war period, American visitors and decline of the aristocracy The First World War brought down many of the royal houses of Europe and altered the #nature and the calendar of the French Riviera. Following the war, greater numbers of Americans began arriving, with business moguls and celebrities eventually outnumbering aristocrats. The 'High Society' scene moved from a winter season to a summer season. Americans began coming to the south of France in the 19th century. Henry James set part of his novel The Ambassadors on the Riviera. James Gordon Bennett Jr., the son and heir of the founder of the New York Herald, had a villa in Beaulieu. Industrialist John Pierpont Morgan gambled at Monte Carlo and bought 18th-century paintings by Fragonard in Grasse – shipping them to the Metropolitan Museum in New York. A feature of the French Riviera in the inter-war years was the Train Bleu, an all first-class sleeper train which brought wealthy passengers down from Calais. It made its first trip in 1922, and carried Winston Churchill, Somerset Maugham, and the future King Edward VIII over the years. While Europe was still recovering from the war and the American dollar was strong, American writers and artists started arriving on the Côte d'Azur. Edith Wharton wrote The Age of Innocence (1920) at a villa near Hyères, winning the Pulitzer Prize for the novel (the first woman to do so). Dancer Isadora Duncan frequented Cannes and Nice, but died in 1927 when her scarf caught in a wheel of the Amilcar motor car in which she was a passenger and strangled her. The writer F. Scott Fitzgerald first visited with his wife Zelda in 1924, stopping at Hyères, Cannes and Monte Carlo – eventually staying at Saint-Raphaël, where he wrote much of The Great Gatsby and began Tender Is the Night. While Americans were largely responsible for making summer the high season, a French fashion designer, Coco Chanel, made sunbathing fashionable. She acquired a striking tan during the summer of 1923, and tans then became the fashion in Paris. During the abdication crisis of the British Monarchy in 1936, Wallis Simpson, the intended bride of King Edward VIII, was staying at the Villa Lou Viei in Cannes, talking with the King by telephone each day. After his abdication, the Duke of Windsor (as he became) and his new wife stayed at the Villa La Croë on the Cap d'Antibes. The English playwright and novelist Somerset Maugham also became a resident in 1926, buying the Villa La Mauresque toward the tip of Cap Ferrat, near Nice. Second World War When Germany invaded France in June 1940, the remaining British colony was evacuated to Gibraltar and eventually to Britain. American Jewish groups helped some of the Jewish artists living in the south of France, such as Marc Chagall, to escape to the United States. In August 1942, 600 Jews from Nice were rounded up by French police and sent to Drancy, and eventually to death camps. In all about 5,000 French Jews from Nice perished during the war. Following D-Day in Normandy, Operation Dragoon (initially Operation Anvil), the code name for the Allied invasion of Southern France, commenced on 15 August 1944, when American parachute troops landed near Fréjus, and a fleet landed 60,000 troops of the American Seventh Army and French First Army between Cavalaire and Agay, east of Saint-Raphaël. German resistance was not as fanatical as Hitler and the High Command had ordered, and crumbled in days. Saint-Tropez was badly damaged by German mines at the time of the liberation. The novelist Colette organized an effort to assure the town was rebuilt in its original style. When the war ended, artists Marc Chagall and Pablo Picasso returned to live and work. Post-war period and late 20th century The Cannes Film Festival was launched in September 1946, marking the return of French cinema to world screens. The Festival Palace was built in 1949 on the site of the old Cercle Nautique, where the Prince of Wales had met his mistresses in the late 19th century. The release of the French film Et Dieu… créa la femme (And God Created Woman) in November 1956 was a major event for the Riviera, making an international star of Brigitte Bardot, and making an international tourist destination of Saint-Tropez, particularly for the new class of wealthy international travellers called the jet set. The marriage of American film actress Grace Kelly to Prince Rainier of Monaco on 18 April 1956, attracted world attention once again. It was viewed on television by 30 million people. During the 1960s, the Mayor of Nice, Jacques Médecin, decided to reduce the dependence of the Riviera on ordinary tourism, and to make it a destination for international congresses and conventions. He built the Palais des Congrès at the Acropolis in Nice, and founded a Chagall Museum and a Matisse Museum at Cimiez. At the end of August 1997, Princess Diana and Dodi Fayed spent their last days together on his father's yacht off Pampelonne Beach near Saint-Tropez, shortly before they died in the Alma Tunnel in Paris. Geography Coastal municipalities Places Places on the Côte d'Azur (following the broadest definition), following the coast from south-west to north-east, include: Tourism Some data related to tourism on the Riviera in 2006: More than 14 million tourists 52% of customers from abroad 65 million nights stayed Tourists spending €5 billion 75,000 jobs; tourism is 18% of total employment in the Alpes-Maritimes. 500,000 tourists in the High Country 500,000 delegates 3 million admissions to museums and monuments More than 45% of tourists come by air Climate The French Riviera is mostly subtropical, featuring a Mediterranean climate, with sunny, hot, dry summers and mild winters. Winter temperatures are moderated by the Mediterranean; days of frost are rare. The average daily low temperature in Nice in January is 5.4 °C (41.7 °F); the January average daily low temperature in Toulon is 6.2 °C (43.2 °F). The average high temperature in August in Nice is 28.6 °C (83.5 °F); in Toulon the average daily high temperature is 29.7 °C (85.5 °F) The Côte d'Azur receives more rainfall annually than Paris (803.3 mm (31.63 in) annually in Nice and 684.8 mm (26.96 in) in Toulon compared with 649.8 mm (25.58 in) in Paris), but the rainy days are much less frequent and the Riviera is considerably sunnier; 111 rainy days a year in Paris compared with 61 days in Toulon and 63 in Nice. Rain is generally more common in the Autumn and Winter months while the summers are drier. Toulon has 2,793 hours of sunshine a year, Nice has 2,668 hours. Micro-climates exist in these coastal regions, and there can be great differences in the weather between various locations. Strong winds such as the mistral, a cold dry wind from the northwest or from the east, are another characteristic, particularly in the winter. Nice, in particular is surrounded by mountains to the North, protecting it from the Mistral winds making it feel milder on sunny days. The Sirocco is a southerly wind, coming from the African continent and often felt on the Mediterranean coast of Europe. It is a hot and humid wind, occasionally carrying sand from the Sahara which is then deposited in coastal areas across Southern Europe. The French Riviera is one of the mildest locations in the world for its latitude, owing to the Gulf Stream which moderates the temperatures in Western Europe, particularly in winter and the warming effect of the Mediterranean Sea. Because of this, the region boasts a long growing season and supports the growth of exotic flora such as Citrus Fruits and Palm Trees. Snow is very uncommon in the winters and the long, hot and sunny summers have long been a draw for tourists since the days of British Aristocracy. =### Nice and Alpes-Maritimes= Nice and the Alpes-Maritimes département are sheltered by the Alps. The winds are usually gentle, from the sea to the land, though sometimes the mistral blows strongly from the northwest, or, turned by the mountains, from the east. In 1956 a mistral from the northwest reached 180 kilometres per hour (110 mph) at Nice Airport. Sometimes, in summer, the sirocco brings high temperatures and reddish desert sand from the Sahara (see Winds of Provence). Rain can be torrential, particularly in the autumn, when storms and rain are caused by the difference between the colder air inland and the warm Mediterranean water temperature (20–24 °C [68–75 °F]). The rainiest months are September (75.6 millimetres [2.98 in] average rainfall); October (143.9 millimetres [5.67 in]); November (94.3 millimetres [3.71 in]) and December (87.8 millimetres [3.46 in]). Snow on the coast is rare, falling on average once every ten years. 1956 was exceptional, when 20 cm (7.9 in) blanketed the coast. In January 1985 the coast between Cannes and Menton received 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in). In the mountains, snow is present from November to May. =### Var= The département of Var (which includes Saint-Tropez and Hyères) has a climate slightly warmer, drier and sunnier than Nice and Alpes-Maritimes, but is less sheltered from the wind. The mistral, which brings cold and dry air down from the upper Alpine regions via the Rhône valley and extends with diminishing intensity along the Côte d'Azur, blows frequently during the winter. Strong winds blow for about 75 days a year in Fréjus. Events and festivals Several major events take place: Monaco and southeast France: Rallye Automobile Monte-Carlo, January Monaco: International Circus Festival of Monte-Carlo, January / February Mandelieu-la-Napoule: La Fête du Mimosa, February Nice: Carnival, February Menton: Lemon Festival, February Tourrettes-sur-Loup: Violet Festival, March Monaco: Monte-Carlo Masters, April–May Monaco: Formula One Grand Prix race, May Grasse; Rose Festival, May Cannes: Cannes Film Festival and Cannes Film Market, May Nice: Jazz Festival, July Juan-les-Pins: Jazz à Juan, late July. Grasse: Jasmine Festival, August Toulon: Toulon Tournament, Tall Ships' Race IRONMAN 70.3 Races, May Painters The climate and vivid colors of the Mediterranean attracted many famous artists during the 19th and 20th centuries. They included: Pierre Bonnard (1867–1947); retired to and died at Le Cannet. Roger Broders (1883–1953); Parisian #travel poster illustrator. Marc Chagall (1887–1985); lived in Saint-Paul-de-Vence between 1948 and 1985. Henri-Edmond Cross (1856–1910); discovered the Côte d'Azur in 1883, and painted at Monaco and Hyères. Maurice Denis (1870–1943); painted at St. Tropez and Bandol. Raoul Dufy (1877–1953); whose wife was from Nice, painted in the region, including in Nice. Albert Marquet (1873–1947); painted at St. Tropez. Henri Matisse (1869–1954); first visited St. Tropez in 1904. In 1917 he settled in Nice, first at the Hôtel Beau Rivage, then at the Hôtel de la Méditerranée, then at la Villa des Alliés in Cimiez. In 1921 he lived in an apartment in Nice, next to the flower market and overlooking the sea, where he lived until 1938. He then moved to the Hôtel Régina in the hills of Cimiez, above Nice. During World War II he lived in Vence, then returned to Cimiez, where he died and is buried. Claude Monet (1840–1927); visited Menton, Bordighera, Juan-les-Pins, Monte Carlo, Nice, Cannes, Beaulieu and Villefranche, and painted a number of seascapes of Cap Martin, near Menton, and at Cap d'Antibes. Edvard Munch (1863–1944); visited and painted in Nice and Monte Carlo (where he developed a passion for gambling), and rented a villa at Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat in 1891. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973); spent each summer from 1919 to 1939 on the Côte d'Azur, and moved there permanently in 1946, first at Vallauris, then at Mougins, where he spent his last years. Auguste Renoir (1841–1919); visited Beaulieu, Grasse, Saint-Raphaël and Cannes, before finally settling in Cagnes-sur-Mer in 1907, where he bought a farm in the hills and built a new house and workshop on the grounds. He continued to paint there until his death in 1919. His house is now a museum. Paul Signac (1863–1935); visited St. Tropez in 1892, and bought a villa, La Hune, at the foot of citadel in 1897. It was at his villa that his friend, Henri Matisse, painted his famous Luxe, Calme et Volupté in 1904. Signac made numerous paintings along the coast. Yves Klein (1928–1962); a native of Nice, considered an important figure in post-war European art. Sacha Sosno (1937–2013); French painter and sculptor who lived and worked in Nice. Writers Many writers have also been inspired by the area, including Death on the Riviera by John Bude, The Garden of Eden by Ernest Hemingway, Imogen by Jilly Cooper, and Swimming Home by Deborah Levy. Bibliography History Henry de Lumley, La Grand Histoire des premiers hommes européens, Odile Jacob, Paris, 2010 (ISBN 978 2 7381 2386 2). Aldo Bastié, Histoire de la Provence, Éditions Ouest-France, 2001. Mary Blume, Côte d'Azur: Inventing the French Riviera, Thames and Hudson, London, 1992. Patrick Howarth, When the Riviera was Ours, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1977. Jim Ring, Riviera, the Rise and Fall of the Côte d'Azur, John Murray Publishers, London, 1988. Edouard Baratier (editor), Histoire de la Provence, Editions Privat, Toulouse, 1969 (ISBN 2 7089 1649 1). Painters La Méditerranée de Courbet à Matisse, catalog of the exhibit at the Grand Palais, Paris from September 2000 to January 2001. Published by the Réunion des musées nationaux, 2000. #france #travel #history #europe #culture
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Olá, meus queridos exploradores e amantes de aventuras! Aqui é o vosso Tiago Silva, e hoje levo-vos numa #viagem a um lugar que mais parece saído de um livro de contos de fadas, um destino que pulsa com #história e encanta com a sua beleza inigualável: a magnífica Sintra. Preparem-se para uma imersão profunda num universo onde o tempo parece abrandar, onde a bruma matinal se confunde com lendas antigas e onde cada pedra sussurra segredos de séculos passados. Sintra não é apenas uma vila; é uma experiência, um estado de espírito. Aninhada na parte norte da vibrante área metropolitana de Lisboa, e parte integrante da Grande Lisboa, esta joia portuguesa, outrora pertencente à histórica província da Estremadura, é um convite irrecusável à descoberta. É a sede de um município que, com os seus 319,23 km² de área e uma impressionante população de 395.528 habitantes em 2023, se destaca no panorama nacional. Para que tenham uma ideia da sua dimensão, a população de Sintra representa uns notáveis 13,36% do total metropolitano e uns impressionantes 18,60% do total da Grande Lisboa. É, afinal, o segundo município mais populoso de #Portugal, logo após a capital, Lisboa – um feito notável para uma localidade que, orgulhosamente, recusou ser elevada à categoria de cidade! Um Mosaico Geográfico e Humano O município de Sintra é um verdadeiro camaleão geográfico, oferecendo uma tapeçaria de paisagens que se estendem desde as fronteiras com Mafra a norte, Loures, Odivelas e Amadora a leste, Oeiras a sudeste, e Cascais a sul, até se abraçar com o vasto oceano Atlântico a oeste. Esta diversidade de limites territoriais espelha-se na heterogeneidade do seu próprio território. Percorrer Sintra é como folhear um livro de paisagens contrastantes: as freguesias litorais e do norte ainda ostentam características marcadamente florestais e rurais, com os seus verdes profundos e o ar puro a convidar a longas caminhadas. Em nítido contraste, as freguesias do sul desenvolveram-se, transformando-se em núcleos urbanizados vibrantes, impulsionadas pela sua proximidade à capital e pela melhoria das acessibilidades. Estradas como o IC16 e o IC19, a vital Linha de Sintra e, em menor escala, a Linha do Oeste, servem como artérias que alimentam o dinamismo desta região, facilitando a conexão com o resto do país e tornando-a um ponto estratégico para quem busca a combinação perfeita entre a tranquilidade serrana e a conveniência urbana. Para além da pitoresca vila de Sintra, o município alberga outros núcleos de grande relevância, como as cidades de Queluz e Agualva-Cacém, cada uma com o seu próprio encanto e ritmo de vida, contribuindo para a riqueza e complexidade deste território. Geograficamente, Sintra assenta como uma coroa no final de um majestoso maciço, formado pelas serras de Aire, Candeeiros e Montejunto. Este culmina no imponente Maciço de Sintra, onde a sua serra homónima e a Serra da Carregueira se erguem com uma beleza quase mística. O ponto mais elevado do município, e de toda a área metropolitana, encontra-se na Pena, na Serra de Sintra, elevando-se a uns impressionantes 528 metros de altitude. A partir daqui, a vista é de cortar a respiração, abrangendo uma vastidão de vales e planaltos que raramente ultrapassam os 200 metros, pontilhados por inúmeras ribeiras que, ao longo dos milénios, esculpiram e demarcaram a paisagem com os seus cursos sinuosos. Este é um cenário de montanhas que se encontram com o mar, de florestas densas que guardam segredos e de vales verdejantes que convidam à contemplação. A Vila de Sintra, em particular, é um testemunho vivo da arquitetura romântica, um estilo que aqui encontrou o seu palco ideal. Não é de estranhar que esta paisagem de sonhos tenha sido classificada como Paisagem Cultural de Sintra, Património Mundial da UNESCO. A sua persistência em manter o estatuto de vila, apesar de ser o segundo município mais populoso de Portugal, é um detalhe que sublinha o seu caráter único e a sua recusa em ceder ao ritmo frenético da urbanização desmedida, preservando a sua essência e o seu encanto atemporal. O Nome que Evoca o Sol e a Lua Cada lugar tem uma história no seu nome, e Sintra não é exceção. A etimologia da sua designação é tão fascinante quanto a própria vila, um eco dos tempos ancestrais que nos remete a civilizações e crenças perdidas. A forma mais antiga do nome, "Suntria", aponta para raízes indo-europeias, significando "astro luminoso" ou "sol". É como se, desde sempre, este local estivesse destinado a brilhar, a ser um farol na paisagem. Não admira que figuras tão proeminentes como Varrão e Columela a tenham designado como "Monte Sagrado", reconhecendo a aura de reverência que sempre envolveu estas colinas. Mais tarde, o célebre Ptolomeu, com a sua visão geográfica apurada, registou-a como a "Serra da Lua". Imaginem a mística que estas montanhas deveriam inspirar, com os seus contornos suaves e a sua vegetação luxuriante, banhadas pela luz prateada do luar. Esta dualidade – sol e lua, luz e mistério – parece estar inscrita na própria alma de Sintra. E se a etimologia nos fala de luz, a descrição do geógrafo árabe Abu Ubaide Abedalá Albacri, no século X, adiciona uma camada de encantamento e mistério que se tornou uma das características mais icónicas de Sintra. Ele descreveu-a como um lugar "permanentemente mergulhada numa bruma que não se dissipa". Esta névoa, que tantas vezes abraça a serra, não é um véu que oculta, mas sim um manto que revela, transformando palácios em castelos de fadas flutuantes e florestas em reinos encantados, onde cada passo é uma descoberta e cada visão um deleite. É esta bruma, este hálito de um tempo imemorial, que confere a Sintra a sua atmosfera verdadeiramente mágica e inesquecível, um portal para a imaginação. Uma Crónica de Milénios: A História de Sintra Ao passear pelas ruas de calçada, pelos parques verdejantes e pelos majestosos palácios de Sintra, torna-se evidente que estamos a pisar um solo impregnado de séculos de história. É um privilégio encontrar nesta vila testemunhos de praticamente todas as épocas da história portuguesa, muitos dos quais, pela sua importância e dimensão, transcenderam as fronteiras deste território para se inscreverem nos anais da humanidade. A candidatura que elevou Sintra a Património Mundial/Paisagem Cultural junto da UNESCO foi um reconhecimento da sua essência singular. Tratou-se de classificar não apenas edifícios isolados, mas toda uma área que se assume como um contexto cultural e ambiental de características tão específicas que a tornam verdadeiramente única. A descrição da UNESCO captura na perfeição a alma de Sintra: uma unidade cultural que permaneceu intacta, um tesouro inestimável onde se sucedem uma plêiade de palácios suntuosos e parques luxuriantes; de casas senhoriais, cada uma com os seus próprios hortos e bosques secretos; de palacetes e chalets de conto de fadas, inseridos no meio de uma vegetação exuberante que parece abraçar e proteger estas construções. Mas a história de Sintra não se limita à opulência. A serra é coroada por extensos troços amuralhados que se erguem nos cumes mais altos, sussurrando histórias de defesa e de tempos medievais. Para além disso, encontramos uma plêiade de conventos de meditação, aninhados entre penhascos escarpados, bosques densos e fontes de água pura, locais de recolhimento e espiritualidade que convidam à introspeção. Igrejas, capelas e ermidas, que ao longo dos séculos serviram como polos de fé e de arte, pontilham a paisagem, cada uma guardando a sua própria parcela de devoção e beleza. E, para os mais curiosos, Sintra é também uma unidade cultural intacta numa plêiade de vestígios arqueológicos que apontam para ocupações que remontam a vários milénios. É um lugar onde o passado remoto se encontra com a modernidade, onde cada canto revela uma camada diferente da grande tapeçaria do tempo. É esta riqueza, esta densidade histórica e cultural, que faz de Sintra um destino imperdível e um verdadeiro portal para a alma de #Europa. Ecoar dos Primórdios: Do Neolítico à Idade do Bronze A história de Sintra é tão profunda que os seus primeiros capítulos se perdem na névoa do tempo, remontando a milénios antes de Cristo. Os mais antigos testemunhos da presença humana nesta região localizam-se num cume da vertente Norte da Serra de Sintra, na Penha Verde. Aqui, escavações revelaram uma ocupação epipaleolítica, comprovada pela abundância de utensílios de tipo microlaminar. Imaginem os nossos antepassados, caçadores-recoletores, a viver nestas encostas, usando estas ferramentas minúsculas e afiadas para sobreviverem e prosperarem num ambiente selvagem e desafiador. Avançando um pouco mais no tempo, encontramos vestígios de uma ocupação do Neolítico no sítio de ar livre de São Pedro de Penaferrim, junto à Capela do Castelo dos Mouros. Este local é um verdadeiro tesouro, com a presença de cerâmicas decoradas – incisas, impressas e com aplicações –, associadas a uma indústria lítica talhada em sílex. Datado pelo método do radiocarbono de inícios do V milénio a.C., este sítio destaca-se pela sua originalidade e pela sua implantação na paisagem: em plena montanha. É fascinante pensar nestas comunidades pré-históricas, enquadradas culturalmente na corrente circum-mediterrânica, a estabelecerem-se e a moldarem a sua vida num local tão elevado e pitoresco, cultivando a terra e criando arte através da cerâmica. A Idade do Bronze Atlântico (segunda metade do II milénio a.C. – inícios do I) também deixou a sua marca indelével em diversos locais da Serra de Sintra. Encontramos vestígios de habitats, como no Parque das Merendas, junto à Vila, onde podemos imaginar pequenas povoações a florescer. E em contextos votivos, como no Monte do Sereno, os nossos antepassados realizavam rituais e oferendas, conectando-se com o divino nesta paisagem que, desde sempre, foi considerada sagrada. Mais tarde, no Bronze Final ou período Orientalizante, entre os séculos IX e VI a.C., a região voltou a estar intensamente ligada à Bacia Mediterrânica. Um importante e vasto povoado foi descoberto sob o imponente Castelo dos Mouros, revelando uma comunidade próspera e com ligações comerciais e culturais a outras civilizações. Estes vestígios arqueológicos são as primeiras páginas da longa e rica narrativa de Sintra, mostrando que esta terra tem atraído e nutrido a vida humana desde os alvores da civilização. Sob o Estandarte da Águia: Durante o Império Romano Com a ascensão do Império Romano, a região de Sintra viu-se integrada na vastidão do territorium da civitas olisiponense, a moderna Lisboa. Esta cidade, agraciada por César cerca de 49 a.C. ou, mais provavelmente, por Otaviano cerca de 30 a.C., com o invejável estatuto de Municipium Civium Romanorum, tornou-se um polo de poder e influência. Os habitantes da região de Sintra, sob a égide romana, inscreveram-se na tribo Galeria e adotaram nomes romanos, com especial destaque para o imperial "Lulius". Esta adoção de nomes e a integração na estrutura administrativa romana não foi meramente superficial. Os vestígios da época revelam uma população plenamente imbuída de romanidade, absorvendo a #cultura, as leis e os costumes do vasto império. As estradas romanas cruzavam a serra, ligando vilas e explorações agrícolas, e a paisagem, outrora selvagem, começou a ser moldada segundo os princípios da Pax Romana. A #architecture romana, com a sua solidez e funcionalidade, começou a deixar a sua marca, embora talvez não com a grandiosidade dos palácios que viriam a seguir. Este período de romanização profunda é um testemunho da capacidade de Sintra em assimilar e integrar influências externas, um traço que se manteria ao longo da sua história, enriquecendo a sua identidade de forma indelével. Através dos séculos, Sintra continuou a ser um ponto de convergência de culturas, de estilos e de sonhos. É um lugar onde a #nature se entrelaça harmoniosamente com a criação humana, onde a bruma da serra convida à contemplação e os palácios contam histórias de reis e rainhas, de poetas e exploradores. É um destino que apela a todos os sentidos, que desperta a imaginação e que nos faz sentir parte de algo muito maior. E assim, meus caros, termino esta primeira incursão por Sintra, mas a viagem está longe de acabar! Ainda há tantos palácios para explorar, tantos jardins para nos perdermos, e tantos segredos que esta vila mágica guarda. Espero que esta partilha vos tenha inspirado a visitar este conto de fadas real. Fiquem atentos para mais aventuras e mais histórias do vosso Tiago Silva! Até já! #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. O Sussurro das Pedras Antigas: Uma Viagem Inesquecível por Óbidos, a Vila das Rainhas Olá, companheiros de viagem! Daqui fala o Tiago Silva. Se há um lugar no mundo onde o tempo parece ter decidido parar, recolhendo as suas asas para descansar sobre ameias de pedra e ruelas caiadas de branco, esse lugar é Óbidos. Esta joia fortificada, erguida como um sentinela do passado na nossa adorada pátria, convida-nos a uma desconexão total do bulício contemporâneo e a um mergulho profundo na herança que moldou a identidade de #Portugal. Hoje, convido-vos a calçar uns sapatos confortáveis e a acompanhar-me numa exploração exaustiva, detalhada e sensorial por esta vila que é, sem sombra de dúvida, um dos tesouros mais cintilantes da #Europa. Preparem-se para descobrir cada detalhe geográfico, histórico e cultural deste município que apaixona qualquer pessoa à primeira vista.Uma Localização Privilegiada entre a Terra e o Oceano Para compreendermos a grandiosidade de Óbidos, precisamos primeiro de nos situar no mapa da nossa belíssima região Oeste. Esta icónica vila portuguesa, que serve de orgulhosa sede de município, encontra-se aninhada na província histórica da Estremadura, integrando administrativamente o distrito de Leiria. No atual ordenamento territorial, o concelho faz parte da prestigiada NUTII do Oeste e Vale do Tejo. A nível demográfico, a vila intramuros preserva uma escala humana e incrivelmente acolhedora, albergando cerca de 2 200 habitantes que têm o privilégio diário de habitar um cenário de conto de fadas. No entanto, o Município de Óbidos estende-se muito para além das suas famosas muralhas, abrangendo uma área total de 141,55 km² e uma população que, de acordo com os dados censitários de 2021, ascende a 11 924 residentes. [Norte / Nordeste / Leste: Caldas da Rainha] \ [Noroeste: Oceano Atlântico] -- [ÓBIDOS] -- [Sul: Bombarral] / [Oeste: Peniche] -- [Sudoeste: Lourinhã]O território municipal desenha uma geografia rica e diversificada, delimitada a nordeste e a leste pelo vizinho concelho das Caldas da Rainha. Ao caminharmos para sul, encontramos as fronteiras do Bombarral, enquanto a sudoeste o horizonte se cruza com a Lourinhã. A oeste, a península de Peniche ergue-se como barreira terrestre, mas a noroeste o concelho abre-se generosamente para a vastidão azul, onde a magnífica costa encontra o Oceano Atlântico, fundindo a imponência da pedra com a frescura marítima onde a #nature se manifesta em toda a sua plenitude. Se planeia a sua próxima #viagem a partir dos grandes centros urbanos, o acesso é extremamente simples e rápido. Óbidos localiza-se a uns meros 88 quilómetros a norte da capital, Lisboa, um trajeto que se cumpre com facilidade através da autoestrada A8. Para quem viaja a partir do norte ou do centro do país, a vila situa-se a sudoeste da histórica cidade de Coimbra, a uma distância de 138 quilómetros, utilizando a ligação combinada das autoestradas A1 e A8. É um desvio mais do que obrigatório para quem deseja respirar o ar puro do Oeste.A Origem do Nome: De "Oppidum" a Óbidos Para os amantes da etimologia, o nome "Óbidos" encerra em si a própria essência física da vila. Esta palavra deriva diretamente do termo latino ópido (ou oppidum), cujo significado literal nos remete para as ideias de «cidadela» ou «cidade fortificada». Ao pronunciarmos o seu nome, estamos a evocar a própria arquitetura defensiva que a carateriza há milénios. A ocupação humana desta região é de facto ancestral, e a prova dessa presença continuada no tempo encontra-se a pouca distância do atual núcleo urbano, onde se erguem as ruínas históricas da antiga povoação romana de Eburobrício. É fascinante pensar como estas colinas têm sido, ao longo de gerações, um ponto estratégico de abrigo, vigia e habitação.Um Passeio pela História: Conquistas, Rainhas e Forais A #história de Óbidos lê-se como um romance de cavalaria repleto de conquistas, alianças políticas e generosidade real. O ano de 1148 figura com letras de ouro nos anais da vila, marcando o momento histórico em que este reduto fortificado foi tomado aos Mouros, no âmbito da reconquista cristã liderada pelo primeiro rei de Portugal, D. Afonso Henriques. Décadas mais tarde, em 1195, a vila recebia a sua primeira carta de foral, outorgada sob o reinado de D. Sancho I, garantindo-lhe privilégios e consolidando a sua importância no jovem reino português. A Vila das Rainhas Uma das particularidades mais românticas e singulares de Óbidos é o facto de ter integrado, durante séculos, o dote de inúmeras rainhas de Portugal. Esta tradição de generosidade régia fez com que a vila ficasse conhecida como a "Vila das Rainhas", uma terra cuidada e acarinhada pelas mulheres mais influentes da corte. Entre as soberanas que receberam Óbidos como parte do seu dote, destacam-se nomes incontornáveis da nossa história:D. Urraca de Castela: A influente esposa de D. Afonso II; Rainha Santa Isabel: A padroeira da paz e esposa de D. Dinis, que terá ficado encantada com a beleza da vila; D. Filipa de Lencastre: A culta esposa de D. João I e mãe da Ínclita Geração; D. Leonor de Aragão: Esposa de D. Duarte; D. Leonor de Avis: Esposa de D. João II, cujo impacto na região foi profundo.Esta ligação às rainhas moldou não só o património, mas também o desenvolvimento das terras circundantes. Sabia, por exemplo, que o atual concelho das Caldas da Rainha nasceu diretamente do território de Óbidos? Originalmente, aquela estância termal era denominada "Caldas de Óbidos". A alteração do nome deveu-se especificamente às longas temporadas que a rainha D. Leonor passou naquela localidade para usufruir das águas termais, acabando por autonomizar a povoação que hoje conhecemos. Ao recuarmos no tempo através dos registos demográficos, descobrimos dados curiosos: no ano de 1527, viviam escassos 161 habitantes no interior da vila de Óbidos. Este número representava, na época, cerca de um décimo de toda a população que residia no território do município. Ao longo dos séculos, a vila soube preservar a sua escala íntima, resistindo à expansão desordenada e mantendo intacto o seu traçado medieval.O Coração de Pedra: O Castelo e as Muralhas de Óbidos Falar de Óbidos sem mencionar a sua majestosa fortaleza é simplesmente impossível. No dia 16 de Fevereiro de 2007, o Castelo de Óbidos recebeu oficialmente o diploma de candidato a uma das maiores distinções patrimoniais do país. Meses mais tarde, ainda no decorrer do ano de 2007, o monumento foi solenemente declarado, através do concurso nacional "As Sete Maravilhas de Portugal", como o segundo dos sete monumentos mais relevantes de todo o património de #architecture português. A imponência deste conjunto defensivo transpôs as barreiras físicas e entrou no mundo digital. No ano de 2015, as Muralhas da Vila de Óbidos passaram a integrar o prestigiado projeto "Maravilhas de Portugal", uma feliz parceria entre a Direção-Geral do Património Cultural (DGPC) e a multinacional tecnológica Google. Graças a esta iniciativa inovadora, viajantes de todo o mundo podem realizar uma visita virtual detalhada, em formato de 360 graus, explorando online as muralhas e outros 56 monumentos nacionais diretamente a partir das plataformas da Google ou do Google Maps. Mas, acredite, nada substitui a sensação física de caminhar sobre aquelas pedras gastas pelo tempo, sentindo o vento do Oeste no rosto.Património Monumental: Uma Rota de Fé e Arte Ao cruzarmos as portas de Óbidos, entramos num museu a céu aberto. Cada esquina revela um detalhe de cantaria, uma flor que espreita de uma janela ou o portal de um templo secular. Para que não perca nenhum detalhe na sua próxima visita, compilei a lista essencial dos monumentos que constituem o riquíssimo património histórico da vila: Os Portais e a DefesaPorta da Vila: A entrada principal da povoação, adornada com belíssimos azulejos que dão as boas-vindas a quem chega com promessas de beleza e história. Castelo de Óbidos: A sentinela máxima da vila, com as suas torres imponentes e uma vista desafogada sobre a lezíria circundante. Porta do Vale: Outro dos acessos históricos que rompe a muralha, ligando o interior fortificado às paisagens verdejantes que o rodeiam. Aqueduto: Uma estrutura monumental que rasga a paisagem exterior, testemunho da engenharia de outrora que garantia o abastecimento de água à população.Templos de Fé e DevoçãoPraça de Santa Maria: O verdadeiro coração social da vila, onde a comunidade se reúne e onde se sente pulsar a alma obidense. Igreja de Santa Maria: O principal templo religioso da vila, palco de casamentos reais e detentor de um interior artístico de cortar a respiração. Igreja da Misericórdia: Um espaço de recolhimento que reflete a assistência social e a devoção religiosa ao longo dos séculos. Igreja de São Pedro: Com a sua arquitetura marcante, ergue-se como mais um ponto de paragem obrigatória para apreciar a arte sacra. Igreja de Nossa Senhora de Monserrate: Um exemplar charmoso da arquitetura religiosa local. Santuário do Senhor Jesus da Pedra: Localizado fora das muralhas, este monumento de planta singular desafia a gravidade e a geometria, atraindo os olhares dos amantes de arquitetura barroca. Capela de São Martinho: Um pequeno e antigo templo que guarda memórias de fé privada e devoção popular. Igreja de São Tiago: Localizada estrategicamente junto ao castelo, esta igreja encontrou uma nova vida, estando intimamente ligada à dinâmica cultural da vila. Ermida de Nossa Senhora do Carmo: Um ponto de recolhimento espiritual situado em harmonia com a paisagem envolvente.Cultura e Arte CivilCasa do Arco da Cadeia – Abílio Mattos e Silva e Maria José Salavisa: Um espaço que celebra a vida, a obra e a estética destes dois vultos artísticos incontornáveis, enriquecendo o roteiro cultural da vila. Museu Municipal de Óbidos: Situado na emblemática Rua Direita, no número 97, este museu é o guardião das memórias artísticas da vila, albergando obras de arte de valor inestimável que ajudam a decifrar o passado desta terra de rainhas.Óbidos, a Vila Literária: Onde os Livros Ganham Vida Se a história e a pedra nos apaixonam, a ligação de Óbidos à palavra escrita eleva esta vila a um patamar cultural de nível mundial. O audacioso projeto "Óbidos, Vila Literária" nasceu de uma ideia inovadora: reabilitar espaços urbanos degradados ou devolutos e transformá- #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Porto: Onde o Tempo Canta e o Vinho Flui – Um Brinde à Invicta! Ah, Porto! Há cidades que nos entram na alma sem pedir licença, que nos abraçam com uma energia tão singular que é impossível resistir. E o Porto é, sem dúvida, uma dessas almas gémeas viajantes. Como Tiago Silva, um apaixonado por #Portugal e pelas suas maravilhas, posso afirmar que esta cidade é muito mais do que um destino; é uma experiência, um mergulho profundo na essência de uma nação. Aninhada na margem norte do majestoso rio Douro, esta cidade é a capital vibrante da sub-região da Área Metropolitana do Porto e o coração pulsante da Região Norte. Pertencente ao distrito homónimo, o Município do Porto estende-se por uma área de 41,42 km², abrigando uma população que em 2023 rondava os 248 769 habitantes, uma densidade que revela a sua vitalidade e o seu dinamismo, com cerca de 6 006 almas por quilómetro quadrado, distribuídas por 7 freguesias que guardam histórias e tradições. Os seus limites geográficos são um abraço entre o urbano e o natural: a norte, os vizinhos Matosinhos e Maia; a leste, Gondomar; a sul, a eterna companheira Vila Nova de Gaia, e a oeste, a imensidão azul do Oceano Atlântico, guardião de séculos de navegação e descobertas. Mas o Porto é especial por muitas razões, e a mais fundamental de todas é que foi aqui que tudo começou. É a cidade que generosamente deu o nome a todo um país! Desde tempos imemoriais, por volta de 200 a.C., já era conhecida como Portus Cale. Imagine-se a importância histórica de um local que se torna o berço de uma nação, a capital do Condado Portucalense, a matriz de onde floresceu o reino de Portugal. Cada rua, cada beco empedrado, parece sussurrar os segredos dessa fundação gloriosa. Hoje, a sua fama transcende fronteiras, e por boas razões. É um ícone mundialmente reconhecido pelo seu néctar dourado, o Vinho do Porto, que envelhece em caves seculares em Gaia, mas que tem a sua alma nesta margem do Douro. É celebrada pelas suas pontes, verdadeiras obras-primas de engenharia e arte que se estendem sobre o rio como braços que abraçam a cidade. A sua #architecture é um diálogo fascinante entre o antigo e o contemporâneo, onde edifícios seculares convivem harmoniosamente com estruturas de design arrojado. O seu centro histórico, um labirinto de ruas estreitas e casas coloridas, foi justamente classificado como Património Mundial pela UNESCO, um testemunho vivo da sua riqueza cultural e histórica. E para além da beleza, há o prazer dos sentidos. A qualidade dos seus restaurantes e a riqueza da sua gastronomia são uma ode aos sabores do Norte, com pratos que aquecem a alma e vinhos que elevam o espírito. A paixão pela bola também corre nas veias da cidade, com equipas de futebol que movem multidões, como o Futebol Clube do Porto, o Boavista Futebol Clube e o Sport Comércio e Salgueiros, cada um com a sua legião de adeptos e a sua própria #cultura. E não podemos esquecer o seu papel como centro de conhecimento: a Universidade do Porto, uma instituição de ensino público de excelência, figura entre as 200 melhores universidades do mundo e entre as 100 melhores da #Europa, atraindo mentes brilhantes de todo o globo. A qualidade dos seus centros hospitalares complementa este quadro de uma cidade que cuida e inova. O Coração Pulsante de uma Região e a Frente Atlântica O Porto não é apenas um município; é o motor da Área Metropolitana do Porto, um vasto conjunto que agrupa 17 municípios, somando uma população de 1 737 395 habitantes numa área de 1 900 km². Com uma densidade populacional que ronda os 914 hab./km², esta metrópole é a 13.ª área urbana mais populosa da União Europeia e a segunda mais populosa de Portugal, apenas atrás de Lisboa. É impressionante ver como o Porto e a sua área metropolitana funcionam como o núcleo estrutural da Região do Norte, a mais populosa de Portugal, com 3 689 609 habitantes (Censos de 2011), abrangendo 8 sub-regiões distintas. Juntamente com os concelhos vizinhos de Vila Nova de Gaia e Matosinhos, o Porto forma a Frente Atlântica, um cordão urbanístico que se estende ao longo da costa, delimitado a oeste pelo imponente Oceano Atlântico. A influência estrutural do estuário do Rio Douro, que une Gaia ao Porto, é palpável, moldando a paisagem e a vida dos seus habitantes. Esta é a zona mais urbanizada da Área Metropolitana, um caldeirão de atividade e desenvolvimento. A cidade é, de facto, a mais importante da altamente industrializada zona litoral da Região Norte, um verdadeiro polo económico onde se concentram grande parte dos mais importantes grupos económicos do país. Nomes como Altri, Grupo Amorim/Corticeira Amorim, Banco BPI, BIAL, EFACEC, Frulact, Lactogal, Millennium BCP, Porto Editora, Sonae, Unicer ou o Grupo RAR, são apenas alguns exemplos das empresas que aqui prosperam, revelando a força e a resiliência empresarial da região. A Associação Empresarial de Portugal, voz do tecido empresarial, também tem a sua sede no Porto. E um dado notável que sublinha a sua pujança: a Região do Norte é a única região portuguesa que exporta mais do que importa, um feito que demonstra a sua capacidade de inovação e a sua projeção internacional. História: Os Sussurros de Milénios e a Alma Invicta Para compreender o Porto, é preciso mergulhar na sua profunda e fascinante #história. Cada pedra, cada rua, cada ribeira, guarda ecos de tempos idos, de civilizações que moldaram a sua identidade. Fundação e os Primeiros Povos A origem do Porto é tão antiga quanto misteriosa, remontando a um povoado celta, anterior à chegada dos romanos. Imagine-se uma comunidade vibrante, enraizada na terra, já a pressentir a importância estratégica daquele local à beira-rio. Na época romana, a cidade floresceu sob a designação de Cale ou Portus Cale, um nome que, como já referi, viria a dar origem ao próprio nome de Portugal. É um legado imenso, uma responsabilidade histórica que a cidade carrega com orgulho. A alvorada do século VIII trouxe consigo uma nova maré, a da invasão muçulmana da Península Ibérica. A 27 de abril de 711, um exército mouro de 9 000 homens, liderados por Tárique, desembarcou em Gibraltar, iniciando uma era de profundas transformações. Em 714, Lisboa caiu, e em 715, as forças islâmicas avançaram implacavelmente para a região norte do que hoje conhecemos como Portugal, tomando importantes povoações e cidades, incluindo o Porto e Braga. Por volta de 716, praticamente toda a Península estava sob o domínio do Califado Omíada, com a exceção de uma pequena e resiliente zona montanhosa das Astúrias, onde a resistência cristã se refugiou, mantendo viva a chama da reconquista. Passado um século e meio de ocupação, em 868, surgiram as primeiras e decisivas tentativas de reconquista definitiva. Um nome ecoa nas brumas do tempo, o de Vímara Peres, um visionário que acendeu a chama da restauração. Ele teve uma contribuição fundamental na reconquista do território, restaurando a cidade de Portucale e lançando as bases para o que se tornaria o Condado Portucalense. A sua ação foi um ponto de viragem, um grito de esperança que ressoou pelas colinas e vales do Douro. Finalmente, e passados dois séculos após o início da invasão muçulmana, em 999, um evento épico marcou a libertação definitiva do Porto. Fidalgos gascões, entre os quais se destacava D. Nónego, bispo de Vendôme, em França, e mais tarde bispo do Porto, entraram com uma grande e imponente armada pela foz do Rio Douro. O seu objetivo era claro: expulsar os mouros e devolver a cidade à cristandade. Esta armada, que ficou imortalizada como a Armada dos Gascões, aliada a D. Munio Viegas, conquistou a cidade do Porto dos mouros para a dedicar à Virgem Mãe de Deus. Imagine-se o fervor, a intensidade da batalha, a libertação celebrada com devoção e gratidão. Após esta vitória, D. Munio e os "franceses" dedicaram-se com afinco à reedificação do Porto. Ergueram antigas e fortes muralhas, que outrora protegeram a cidade, e na parte mais elevada, fundaram um alcácer acastelado e bem fortificado. Este alcácer, mais tarde, após o conde Henrique, serviria de habitação aos bispos, a quem foi doado, tornando-se um símbolo do poder eclesiástico. A torre e a porta principal desta fortificação foram obra de D. Nónego, que, em memória da sua pátria, a nomeou Porta de Vandoma. Na frontaria da torre, mandou erguer um santuário, onde colocou a imagem de Nossa Senhora do Porto, que trouxera consigo de França. É uma história que se enlaça com a fé e a identidade da cidade. Em 1111, um marco importante na história do Porto e de Portugal: Teresa de Leão, mãe do futuro primeiro rei de Portugal, D. Afonso Henriques, concedeu ao bispo D. Hugo o couto do Porto. Este ato reforçou a autonomia e a importância da cidade, consolidando a sua posição no futuro reino. Daí que, até hoje, as armas da cidade ostentem orgulhosamente a imagem de Nossa Senhora, um tributo à sua protetora. É por esta devoção que o Porto é também conhecido como a "Cidade da Virgem", um epíteto que se junta a outros, tão nobres e merecidos, como "Antiga, Mui Nobre, #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
在四川盆地的西南部，岷江、青衣江与大渡河三条波澜壮阔的河流奔腾激荡，携带着来自青藏高原的冰雪融水与蜀地山川的磅礴雨露，最终在凌云山下豁然相拥、浩荡交汇。在这片水域的悬崖峭壁之上，端坐着一尊震撼世界的摩崖石刻造像——乐山大佛（Leshan Giant Buddha）。作为中国最大、世界最高的石刻弥勒佛坐像，它不仅仅是唐代雕塑艺术无与伦比的巅峰之作，更是全人类共同的文化瑰宝与精神象征。每当晨曦初露，破晓的微光穿透江面的薄雾，或是夕阳西下，金色的余晖如披风般洒在大佛慈祥而庄严的面庞上，水波荡漾的倒影中，仿佛正低声诉说着长达一千三百多年的沧桑与辉煌。今天，就让我们一同循着历史的足迹，走进这尊“山是一尊佛，佛是一座山”的千古奇观，深度探寻其背后的传奇故事、不朽精神以及令人叹为观止的古代工程智慧。#乐山大佛 #世界文化遗产 第一章 缘起：激流中的悲悯与宏愿 要真正理解乐山大佛的伟大与不可思议，我们首先必须跨越千年的时空，回到它最初诞生的那个风云激荡、气象万千的时代。唐朝开元元年（公元713年），正值大唐帝国的极盛时期。国力空前强盛，万邦来朝，丝绸之路上的驼铃声清脆悦耳，文化与艺术迎来了前所未有的繁荣。然而，在当时的嘉州（即今天的四川乐山），三江交汇处的江水却犹如脱缰的野马，异常凶险，成为了当地百姓与往来客商挥之不去的梦魇。 岷江自北蜿蜒而来，青衣江与大渡河横冲直撞，三股性质各异、水势强大的洪流在这凌云山麓猛烈相撞。复杂的水文环境使得这里终年水流湍急，暗礁密布，形成了巨大的漩涡和滔天的巨浪。据古文献与地方志记载，每逢夏秋汛期，江水如万马奔腾，声如雷鸣，常常将过往的满载货物的商船和满载希望的客舟无情吞没。舟毁人亡的惨剧在这片水域频频上演，哀嚎声伴随着江水呼啸，无数家庭因此支离破碎，当地百姓苦不堪言。#三江交汇 #自然奇观 此时的大唐，佛教信仰已深深扎根于中原与巴蜀大地。在佛教宏大的宇宙观中，弥勒佛（Maitreya）是代表着光明、未来与解脱的佛，被世人认为能够带来太平、安宁与无限的希望。正是在这样恶劣的地理环境与深厚的信仰背景下，一位名叫海通的僧人站了出来。海通和尚满怀悲悯之心，眼见生灵涂炭，江水肆虐，他发下了一个震撼天地的宏愿：要在三江交汇的凌云山赤色悬崖上，开凿一尊无比巨大的弥勒佛像。他坚信，借助弥勒佛的无边法力与威仪，定能镇压这桀骜不驯的汹涌江水，保佑过往船只与水手的平安。这不仅是一个宏大的宗教愿望，更是一次源于对苍生深沉大爱的伟大民生工程的悲壮开端。#唐代建筑 #弥勒佛 第二章 沥血：海通和尚的惊世之举 海通和尚并非出身名门望族，也没有权倾朝野的皇家背景，他只是一介衣钵单薄的云游僧人。为了筹集开凿大佛所需的犹如天文数字般的庞大资金，海通和尚踏上了漫长、孤独而艰辛的化缘之路。他脚穿草鞋，手持化缘钵，不辞辛劳，足迹遍布大江南北、名山大川。他用自己虔诚的信念和对苍生的慈悲，讲述着镇江建佛的宏愿。历经了无数个寒来暑往、风餐露宿，他终于筹集到了一笔可观的善款。 然而，这笔饱含着无数百姓血汗、期盼与虔诚信仰的资金，却不幸引来了当地贪官污吏的贪婪垂涎。据民间传说与史料杂记描述，当时嘉州的一位手握重权的地方官吏见财起意，仗势欺人，企图以莫须有的名义强行索要、侵吞这笔修佛的巨款。面对如狼似虎、手握生杀大权的贪官，海通和尚没有丝毫退缩，展现出了令人敬畏的铮铮铁骨与佛门大德的凛然正气。 他义正辞严地拒绝了官员的无理要求，并留下了那句掷地有声、穿越千年依旧振聋发聩的千古绝唱：“自目可剜，佛财难得！”（我的双眼可以被挖出来，但用来修佛的钱财你们休想拿走半分）。贪官听闻，以为这不过是一介僧人的虚张声势，便傲慢而轻蔑地嘲笑他。谁知，海通和尚面不改色，为了捍卫这笔拯救苍生的善款，他竟然真的从怀中掏出尖刀，亲手剜下了自己的双目，端在盘子里，鲜血淋漓地递到了那位官员的面前。 贪官被这血腥、惨烈而悲壮的一幕吓得魂飞魄散，连连后退，最终仓皇逃窜，从此再也不敢打这笔佛财的任何主意。海通和尚的惊世之举，不仅保住了修佛的资金，更深深地感动了无数的工匠、百姓与过往行商。在他的精神感召下，浩大而艰巨的开凿工程终于在悬崖峭壁上轰轰烈烈地展开了。工匠们将粗壮的麻绳系在腰间，悬吊在万丈绝壁之上，伴随着经久不息、叮叮当当的斧凿声，坚硬的红色砂岩被一块块剥落，大佛的巍峨轮廓开始在这座大山上渐渐显现。#海通和尚 #匠人精神 #佛教故事 第三章 跨越世纪的开凿：大唐盛世的工程奇迹 然而，要在坚硬的岩壁上开凿一座高达71米的巨型佛像，绝非一朝一夕之功。这不仅需要难以想象的人力与物力，更需要极其高超的建筑学、几何学与地质学知识。就在大佛的头部和胸部刚刚初具雏形，工程正在艰难推进之时，年事已高、双目失明且操劳过度的海通和尚黯然圆寂了。他的离去，让整个大佛的建造工程失去了主心骨，随之陷入了漫长的停滞。岁月流转，巴蜀之地的风雨无情地侵蚀着未完成的佛像，但海通和尚的无私精神却如同一颗不灭的火种，在后人的心中继续燃烧，等待着再次燎原的时刻。 数年之后，当时的剑南西川节度使章仇兼琼被大佛背后的故事深深打动。他慷慨解囊，捐出自己的丰厚俸禄，重新启动了这项浩大但停滞的工程。章仇兼琼不仅个人出资，还利用自己的政治影响力上奏朝廷，请求大唐皇帝赐予当地的麻盐税收，以国家的力量来资助开凿。在大唐帝国雄厚国力的强力介入与支持下，大佛的开凿得以顺利继续推进，工匠们夜以继日地奋战，一直将佛像开凿到了膝盖部位。然而，命运多舛，由于章仇兼琼被朝廷紧急调往京城任职，失去了主要经济来源和行政支持的工程再次被迫停工，这一停又是数十载的漫长岁月。 直到四十年后的唐德宗贞元四年（公元788年），又一位对佛教有着深厚信仰的剑南西川节度使韦皋来到了蜀地。当他亲眼目睹这座未完工的惊世巨佛，并听闻了海通和尚泣血剜目的悲剧与前人数十年的不懈努力后，深受震撼。韦皋毅然决定捐出巨额的军资，并在整个蜀地广泛组织人力物力，发动了最后的冲刺阶段。经过成百上千名工匠们披星戴月、艰苦卓绝的奋战，终于在贞元十九年（公元803年），这尊耗时整整九十年、历经唐代三代人接力开凿的旷世巨作宣告全面竣工。九十年的光阴，三代工匠的青春、汗水，甚至无数年轻生命的代价，最终凝聚成了这尊与天齐高、与山同体的巍峨大佛。#中国古代工程 #历史传奇 #盛唐气象 第四章 巧夺天工：造像艺术与隐秘的排水系统 乐山大佛的工程规模之浩大，艺术造诣之高深，堪称中国乃至古代世界建筑与雕塑史上的不朽奇迹。大佛通高71米，这一高度超越了阿富汗著名的巴米扬大佛，使其稳坐世界最大石刻佛像的宝座。大佛的头部高14.7米，宽10米，其面庞丰满雍容，神情肃穆而慈祥，充分体现了唐代以丰腴为美的审美标准和高超的造像艺术。 令人称奇的是，大佛头顶上共有1021个排列整齐、宛如发丝编织的螺髻。这些螺髻并非与头部一体天然雕刻而成，而是由石块精心雕刻后，逐个精准地镶嵌在佛头上的。历经千年风雨，它们依然牢牢地固定在佛首之上，足见唐代工匠技艺之精湛。大佛的耳朵长达7米，采用木质结构辅以石凿，表面涂以细腻的红泥；肩膀宽阔达28米，犹如一座宽阔平坦的城市广场；手指长8.3米，脚背宽8.5米，其巨大的足背上足足可以围坐上百人。大佛的体态匀称，比例极其协调，它端坐在三江交汇的赤色崖壁上，双手自然地抚放于膝盖，双目微睁，深邃的目光静静地注视着脚下翻滚的江水，仿佛在默默祈祷着天下的苍生，又仿佛在诉说着对宇宙奥秘的无尽理解。 除了令人惊叹的宏大体量与精美绝伦的外在雕刻，乐山大佛内部还隐藏着一个鲜为人知、却至关重要的古代科技奇迹——一套极其巧妙而复杂的隐秘排水系统。四川盆地气候湿润，降水充沛，如果任由山泉水和雨水长期浸泡、冲刷，红砂岩材质的大佛极易发生风化、剥落乃至坍塌。为了防止水患对佛像造成致命侵蚀，古代的大师们展现出了惊人的工程智慧。 他们在设计之初，便在大佛的头部、衣领、胸部以及背部，巧妙地规划和开凿了错综复杂、相互连通的排水沟壑。例如，在大佛头部的18层螺髻中，第4层、第9层和第18层都暗藏着一条横向的微型排水沟；而在佛像的正胸左侧，也有一条极难被常人察觉的封闭排水沟，这条沟槽巧妙地与右臂后侧的竖向沟槽相连。这些精心设计的表面沟槽，与隐藏在大佛背后崖壁上的天然岩洞以及人工开凿的隧道相互贯通，形成了一套科学、立体、高效的通风与排水网络。当暴雨倾盆或山泉渗漏时，水流会顺着这套系统被迅速引流并排出体外，从而有效避免了水流在佛像表面的长期滞留。正是依赖这套巧夺天工、如同人体血管般精密运作的排水系统，乐山大佛才得以在多雨潮湿的自然环境中屹立千年而不倒。这是中国古代水利工程学与雕塑艺术完美结合的最高结晶，至今仍令现代科学家与建筑学家叹为观止。#古代智慧 #工程学奇迹 #隐秘工程 第五章 岁月如歌：大像阁的兴废与千年风霜 然而，即便是凝聚了如此高超智慧与心血的伟大工程，也难以完全抵挡浩瀚岁月的无情侵蚀。在唐代大佛刚刚落成之初，为了保护这尊耗资巨大的佛像免受日晒雨淋的直接伤害，古人曾倾尽全力，在其外围依山傍水地建造了一座高达十三层的超大型木质楼阁，史称“大像阁”或“凌云阁”。据历史文献与文人墨客的诗词描绘，这座楼阁飞檐翘角，雕梁画栋，气势恢宏。它将高耸入云的大佛严严实实地包裹其中，阁内金碧辉煌，香火缭绕，信徒们可以在楼阁的各层近距离瞻仰大佛的不同部位，感受佛法的庄严。 可惜的是，世事无常，盛衰有凭。在明代末年（或有学者认为是更早的宋元战乱时期），这座代表着古代木构建筑巅峰的宏伟楼阁，最终还是不幸毁于残酷的战火之中，化为了一片灰烬。从此以后，失去了“保护伞”的大佛便被迫完全暴露在狂风、暴雨、烈日与霜雪之中。 千百年来，乐山大佛就像一位饱经风霜的冥想者，默默承受着大自然无数次的洗礼。江水不舍昼夜地冲刷着它的脚底底座，引发基础的淘蚀；凌云山的山风带着浓重的水汽，日复一日地侵蚀着它的肌肤。红砂岩虽然易于雕刻，但其疏松的质地也极易在风化作用下发生崩解。尤其是到了近现代，随着全球工业化浪潮的推进与周边城市群的发展，酸雨频发，空气污染加剧，加之每年数以百万计的游客涌入带来的微环境改变，对大佛的保护提出了前所未有的、极其严峻的挑战。大佛的面部一度出现了严重的黑斑退化，鼻部甚至发生了部分脱落的险情；其宽阔的胸部、腹部以及手脚部位，也由于环境潮湿而长满了青苔、杂草乃至小型灌木，甚至出现了学术界所称的“佛面生花”（面部生长植物）与“佛身流泪”（面部因水渍形成黑色条纹）等严重的文物病害。#文物保护 #时光印记 #历史沧桑 第六章 现代重生：世界遗产的守护与文化传承 面对大佛日益严重的退化与病损，中国政府以及国际社会文物保护组织给予了高度的关注与极其庞大的资源投入。1996年12月，乐山大佛与毗邻的佛教圣地峨眉山一同被联合国教科文组织（UNESCO）正式列入《世界自然与文化双遗产名录》，这不仅是对大佛历史价值、艺术价值的最高国际认可，也标志着其正式成为全人类共同守护的宝贵财富。 为了拯救和保护这座珍贵的文化遗产，从上世纪末至今，国内外顶级的文物保护专家、地质学家与化学家多次汇聚乐山，利用三维激光扫描、超声波探伤等最前沿的现代科技手段，对大佛进行了事无巨细的全面勘测与病害诊断。近年来，多项大规模的“修旧如旧”保护工程相继成功实施。在极其陡峭的脚手架上，专家和文物修复师们用手术刀般精细的工具，一点点清理了大佛表面寄生的杂草、苔藓和霉菌，修补了历朝历代留下的破损与裂缝；同时，他们运用最新研发的透气性纳米高科技材料，对佛像的红砂岩表面进行了科学的加固与防风化处理。 除了佛像本体的修复，有关部门对大佛周边的宏观生态环境与微观水文条件也进行了极其严格的治理。大幅度限制了上游及周边工业废气、废水的排放，规范了旅游航道的船只航行，力求将人类活动对大佛的不利影响降至最低。如今的乐山大佛，在经过了现代科技与传统工艺的精心呵护后，已经成功褪去了岁月的尘埃，焕发出新的生机与奕奕神采。它不仅继续吸引着无数虔诚的佛教信徒从世界各地跋山涉水前来朝拜，更成为了全球旅行者、历史文化爱好者向往的超级旅游胜地。每年，数以百万计的游客乘坐游船，在波涛依旧的三江汇流处，怀着激动的心情仰望这尊顶天立地的巨佛，感受那份跨越了千年时空的视觉震撼与心灵宁静。#世界文化遗产保护 #四川旅游必去 #文化传承 第七章 结语：信仰的丰碑，历史的永恒见证 “山是一尊佛，佛是一座山。”当我亲自站在乐山大佛巨大的脚趾之下，仰望那直插云霄、雄伟无匹的庞大身躯时，作为一名普通的历史记录者与旅人，我的内心瞬间被一股难以名状的巨大敬畏之情所淹没。这种敬畏，绝不仅仅是停留在对于大佛那宏大体量与不可思议的视觉冲击力的表面惊叹，更是深深扎根于对于那些建造它的古代先辈们——从发下泣血宏愿的海通和尚，到默默无闻、奉献了一生乃至子孙后代心血的无数唐代匠人——他们那坚不可摧的意志力与深厚信仰的无限崇敬。 从镇压三江水患、保护水上苍生的最初单纯动机，到历经九十载寒暑、三代人接力开凿的惊天工程；从大像阁金碧辉煌的盛世景象，到历经千年风雨剥蚀、战火纷飞的沧桑变迁。乐山大佛见证了大唐帝国的绝代繁华与衰落，经历了中国封建历史的无数次王朝更迭与兴衰荣辱。它不仅仅是一块块被人工雕琢的红色砂岩，它更是一个古老民族悲天悯人的宏大信仰、无与伦比的建筑智慧以及百折不挠的坚韧精神的完美化身。 “千古绝唱，江水悠悠。”清衣江、大渡河与岷江的江水依然在山脚下日夜奔腾流淌，如同那浩浩荡荡、永不止步的历史长河。而乐山大佛，将继续端坐在这座红砂岩的悬崖之巅，面带那抹洞察世事、包容万物的慈祥微笑，静静地、安详地注视着这片广袤土地上的沧海桑田、花开花落。它是一座连接着辉煌过去与无限未来的时空桥梁，是一座永远矗立在全人类精神世界最高处的巍峨丰碑。 在离开乐山的那一刻，我频频回首。愿这份凝结了千年智慧与信仰的伟大遗产，能够如同这浩荡的江水一般，生生不息，源远流长，永远庇护着这片古老而又充满生机的土地。 #李伟游记 #心灵震撼 #中华文明瑰宝 #人文历史 #旅行摄影 #探秘中国 #LeshanGiantBuddha #China #WorldHeritage #Buddhism #TangDynasty
Bienvenue! Let us embark on an unforgettable #journey to the heart of #France. Provence is a geographical, cultural region and historical province of southeastern #France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the south. It largely corresponds with the modern administrative region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and includes the departments of Var, Bouches-du-Rhône, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, as well as parts of Alpes-Maritimes and Vaucluse. The largest city of the region and its modern-day capital is Marseille. The Romans made the region the first Roman province beyond the Alps and called it Provincia Romana, which evolved into the present name. Until 1481 it was ruled by the counts of Provence from their capital in Aquae Sextiae (today Aix-en-Provence), then became a province of the kings of France. It also hosted the Avignon papacy in the middle ages, when the Pope and his Curia fled Rome. While the region has been part of France for more than 500 years, it still retains a distinct cultural and linguistic identity, particularly in the interior of the region. Etymology The region got its name in Roman times, when it was known as Provincia Romana, simply "the Roman province". This name eventually was shortened to Provincia (the province), and as the language evolved from Latin to Provençal, so did the pronunciation and spelling. #history Prehistoric Provence The coast of Provence has some of the earliest known sites of human habitation in Europe. Primitive stone tools dating back 1 to 1.05 million years BC have been found in the Grotte du Vallonnet near Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, between Monaco and Menton. More sophisticated tools, worked on both sides of the stone and dating to 600,000 BC, were found in the Cave of Escale at Saint-Estève-Janson; tools from 400,000 BC and some of the first fireplaces in Europe were found at Terra Amata in Nice. Tools dating to the Middle Paleolithic (300,000 BC) and Upper Paleolithic (30,000–10,000 BC) were discovered in the Observatory Cave, in the Jardin Exotique of Monaco. The Paleolithic period in Provence saw great changes in the climate. Two ice ages came and went, and the sea level changed dramatically. At the beginning of the Paleolithic, the sea level in western Provence was 150 meters higher than today. By the end of the Paleolithic, it had dropped to 100 to 150 meters below the sea level today. The cave dwellings of the early inhabitants of Provence were regularly flooded by the rising sea or left far from the sea and swept away by erosion. The changes in the sea level led to one of the most remarkable discoveries of signs of early man in Provence. In 1985, a diver named Henri Cosquer discovered the mouth of a submarine cave 37 metres below the surface of the Calanque de Morgiou near Marseille. The entrance led to a cave above sea level. Inside, the walls of the Cosquer Cave are decorated with drawings of bison, seals, auks, horses and outlines of human hands, dating to between 27,000 and 19,000 BC. The end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the Neolithic period saw the sea settle at its present level, a warming of the climate and the retreat of the forests. The disappearance of the forests and the deer and other easily hunted game meant that the inhabitants of Provence had to survive on rabbits, snails and wild sheep. In about 6000 BC, the Castelnovian people, living around Châteauneuf-les-Martigues, were among the first people in Europe to domesticate wild sheep, and to cease moving constantly from place to place. Once they settled in one place they were able to develop new industries. Inspired by pottery from the eastern Mediterranean, in about 6000 BC they created the first pottery made in France. Around 6000 BC, a wave of new settlers from the east, the Chasséens, arrived in Provence. They were farmers and warriors, and gradually displaced the earlier pastoral people from their lands. They were followed about 2500 BC by another wave of people, also farmers, known as the Courronniens, who arrived by sea and settled along the coast of what is now the Bouches-du-Rhône. Traces of these early civilisations can be found in many parts of Provence. A Neolithic site dating to about 6,000 BC was discovered in Marseille near the Saint-Charles railway station. and a dolmen from the Bronze Age (2500–900 BC) can be found near Draguignan. Ligures and Celts in Provence Between the 10th and 4th century BC, the Ligures were found in Provence from Massilia as far as modern Liguria. They were of uncertain origin; they may have been the descendants of the indigenous Neolithic peoples. According to Strabo, the Ligurians, living in proximity to numerous Celtic mountain tribes, were a different people (ἑτεροεθνεῖς), but "were similar to the Celts in their modes of life". They did not have their own alphabet, but their language remains in place names in Provence ending in the suffixes -asc, -osc, -inc, -ates, and -auni. The #ancient geographer Posidonius wrote of them: "Their country is savage and dry. The soil is so rocky that you cannot plant anything without striking stones. The men compensate for the lack of wheat by hunting... They climb the mountains like goats." They were also warlike; they invaded Italy and went as far as Rome in the 4th century BC, and they later aided the passage of Hannibal, on his way to attack Rome (218 BC). Traces of the Ligures remain today in the dolmens and other megaliths found in eastern Provence, in the primitive stone shelters called 'Bories' found in the Luberon and Comtat, and in the rock carvings in the Valley of Marvels near Mont Bégo in the Alpes-Maritimes, at an altitude of 2,000 meters. Between the 8th and 5th centuries BC, tribes of Celtic peoples, probably coming from Central Europe, also began moving into Provence. They had weapons made of iron, which allowed them to easily defeat the local tribes, who were still armed with bronze weapons. One tribe, called the Segobriga, settled near modern-day Marseille. The Caturiges, Tricastins, and Cavares settled to the west of the Durance river. Celts and Ligurians spread throughout the area and the Celto-Ligures eventually shared the territory of Provence, each tribe in its own alpine valley or settlement along a river, each with its own king and dynasty. They built hilltop forts and settlements, later given the Latin name oppidum. Today the traces of 165 oppida are found in the Var, and as many as 285 in the Alpes-Maritimes. They worshipped various aspects of #nature, establishing sacred woods at Sainte-Baume and Gemenos, and healing springs at Glanum and Vernègues. Later, in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the different tribes formed confederations; the Voconces in the area from the Isère to the Vaucluse; the Cavares in the Comtat; and the Salyens, from the Rhône river to the Var. The tribes began to trade their local products, iron, silver, alabaster, marble, gold, resin, wax, honey and cheese; with their neighbours, first by trading routes along the Rhône river, and later Etruscan traders visited the coast. Etruscan amphorae from the 7th and 6th centuries BC have been found in Marseille, Cassis, and in hilltop oppida in the region. Greeks in Provence Traders from the island of Rhodes were visiting the coast of Provence in the 7th century BC. Rhodes pottery from that century has been found in Marseille, near Martigues and Istres, and at Mont Garou and Evenos near Toulon. The traders from Rhodes gave their names to the ancient town of Rhodanousia (Ancient Greek: 'Ροδανουσίαν) (now Trinquetaille, across the Rhône river from Arles), and to the main river of Provence, the Rhodanos, today known as the Rhône. The first permanent Greek settlement was Massalia, established at modern-day Marseille in about 600 BC by colonists coming from Phocaea (now Foça, on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor). A second wave of colonists arrived in about 540 BC, when Phocaea was destroyed by the Persians. Massalia became one of the major trading ports of the ancient world. At its height, in the 4th century BC, it had a population of about 6,000 inhabitants, living on about fifty hectares surrounded by a wall. It was governed as an aristocratic republic, by an assembly of the 600 wealthiest citizens. It had a large temple of the cult of Apollo of Delphi on a hilltop overlooking the port, and a temple of the cult of Artemis of Ephesus at the other end of the city. The Drachma coins minted in Massalia were found in all parts of Ligurian-Celtic Gaul. Traders from Massalia ventured inland deep into France on the Rivers Durance and Rhône, and established overland trade routes deep into Gaul, and to Switzerland and Burgundy, and as far north as the Baltic Sea. They exported their own products; local wine, salted pork and fish, aromatic and medicinal plants, coral and cork. The Massalians also established a series of small colonies and trading posts along the coast; which later became towns; they founded Citharista (La Ciotat); Tauroeis (Le Brusc); Olbia (near Hyères); Pergantion (Breganson); Caccabaria (Cavalaire); Athenopolis (Saint-Tropez); Antipolis (Antibes); Nikaia (Nice), and Monoicos (Monaco). They established inland towns at Glanum (Saint-Remy) and Mastrabala (Saint-Blaise). The most famous citizen of Massalia was the mathematician, astronomer and navigator Pytheas. Pytheas made mathematical instruments which allowed him to establish almost exactly the latitude of Marseille, and he was the first scientist to observe that the tides were connected with the phases of the moon. Between 330 and 320 BC he organised an expedition by ship into the Atlantic and as far north as England, and to visit Iceland, Shetland, and Norway. He was the first scientist to describe drift ice and the midnight sun. Though he hoped to establish a sea trading route for tin from Cornwall, his trip was not a commercial success, and it was not repeated. The Massalians found it cheaper and simpler to trade with Northern Europe over land routes. Roman Provence (2nd century BC to 5th century AD) In the 2nd century BC the people of Massalia appealed to Rome for help against the Ligures. Roman legions entered Provence three times; first in 181 BC the Romans suppressed Ligurian uprisings near Genoa; in 154 BC the Roman Consul Optimus defeated the Oxybii and the Deciates, who were attacking Antibes; and in 125 BC, the Romans put down an uprising of a confederation of Celtic tribes. After this battle, the Romans decided to establish permanent settlements in Provence. In 122 BC, next to the Celtic town of Entremont, the Romans built a new town, Aquae Sextiae, later called Aix-en-Provence. In 118 BC they founded Narbo (Narbonne). The Roman general Gaius Marius crushed the last serious resistance in 102 BC by defeating the Cimbri and the Teutons. He then began building roads to facilitate troop movements and commerce between Rome, Spain and Northern Europe; one from the coast inland to Apt and Tarascon, and the other along the coast from Italy to Spain, passing through Fréjus and Aix-en-Provence. In 49 BC, Massalia had the misfortune to choose the wrong side in the power struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar. Pompey was defeated, and Massalia lost its territories and political influence. Roman veterans, in the meantime, populated two new towns, Arles and Fréjus, at the sites of older Greek settlements. In 8 BC the Emperor Augustus built a triumphal monument at La Turbie to commemorate the pacification of the region, and he began to Romanize Provence politically and culturally. Roman engineers and architects built monuments, theatres, baths, villas, fora, arenas and aqueducts, many of which still exist. (See #architecture of Provence.) Roman towns were built at Cavaillon; Orange; Arles; Fréjus; Glanum (outside Saint-Rémy-de-Provence); Carpentras; Vaison-la-Romaine; Nîmes; Vernègues; Saint-Chamas and Cimiez (above Nice). The Roman province, which was called Gallia Narbonensis, for its capital, Narbo (modern Narbonne), extended from Italy to Spain, from the Alps to the Pyrenees. The Pax Romana in Provence lasted until the middle of the 3rd century. Germanic tribes invaded Provence in 257 and 275. At the beginning the 4th century, the court of Roman Emperor Constantine (ca. 272–337) was forced to take refuge in Arles. By the end of the 5th century, Roman power in Provence had vanished, and an age of invasions, wars, and chaos began. Arrival of Christianity (3rd–6th centuries) There are many legends about the earliest Christians in Provence, but they are difficult to verify. It is documented that there were organised churches and bishops in the Roman towns of Provence as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries; in Arles in 254; Marseille in 314; Orange, Vaison and Apt in 314; Cavaillon, Digne, Embrun, Gap, and Fréjus at the end of the 4th century; Aix-en-Provence in 408; Carpentras, Avignon, Riez, Cimiez (today part of Nice) and Vence in 439; Antibes in 442; Toulon in 451; Senez in 406, Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux in 517; and Glandèves in 541. The oldest Christian structure still surviving in Provence is the baptistery of the Fréjus #cathedral, dating from the 5th century. At about the same time, the first two monasteries in Provence were founded: Lérins Abbey, on the island of Saint-Honorat near Cannes, and Abbey of St Victor in Marseille. Germanic invasions, Merovingians and Carolingians (5th–9th centuries) Beginning in the second half of the 5th century, as Roman power waned, successive waves of Germanic tribes entered Provence: first the Visigoths (480), then the Ostrogoths, then the Burgundians, finally, the Franks in the 6th century. Arab invaders and Berber pirates came from North Africa to the Coast of Provence in the early 7th century. During the late 7th and the early 8th centuries, Provence was formally subject to the Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty, but it was in fact ruled by its own regional nobility of Gallo-Roman stock, which ruled themselves according to Roman, not Frankish, law. The region actually enjoyed more prestige than the northern Franks had, but the local aristocracy feared Charles Martel's expansionist ambitions. In 737, Charles Martel headed down the Rhône Valley after subduing Burgundy. He attacked Avignon and Arles, garrisoned by the Umayyads, and came back in 739 to capture for a second time Avignon and chase the duke Maurontus to his stronghold of Marseille. The city was brought to heel and the duke had to flee to an island. The region was thereafter under the rule of Carolingian kings, descended from Charles Martel, and then was part of the #empire of Charlemagne (742–814). In 879, after the death of the Carolingian ruler Charles the Bald, Boso of Provence (also known as Boson), his brother-in-law, broke away from the Carolingian kingdom of Louis III and was elected the first ruler of an independent state of Provence. Fraxinet and the Counts of Provence (9th–13th centuries) During the Middle Ages, Provence was ruled by three successive dynasties of counts and became a focal point in the rivalries between the Crown of Aragon, the kings of Burgundy, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, and the Angevin kings of France. The Bosonids (879–1112), descendants of Boson, the first king of Provence, held the county in the early medieval period. His son, Louis the Blind (r. 890–928), lost his sight during his attempt to claim the Italian throne. He was succeeded in influence by his cousin Hugh of Italy (d. 947), who became duke of Provence and count of Vienne. Hugh transferred the capital from Vienne to Arles and recognised the overlordship of Rudolph II of Burgundy, making Provence a fief of Burgundy. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Provence was subject to invasions by Normans and Saracens (a term used in medieval sources for Muslim raiders). While the Normans withdrew, the Saracens established a permanent base at Fraxinet in 887. In 973 they captured Maieul, abbot of Cluny, prompting a coordinated response by local forces. Under Count William I, the Provençals defeated the Saracens at the Battle of Tourtour, near La Garde-Freinet. Surviving Saracens were either killed, enslaved, or left the region. Dynastic conflicts persisted. A dispute between Rudolph III of Burgundy and the German emperor Conrad II resulted in Provence becoming a fiefdom of the Holy Roman Empire in 1032, a status it retained until 1246. In 1112, Douce I, Countess of Provence, the last Bosonid heiress, married Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, initiating the rule of the Barcelona dynasty in Provence. From 1112 to 1131 he governed as Count of Provence. Following the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon (1137), later known as the Crown of Aragon, Provençal succession passed to the House of Aragon, whose members ruled until 1246. The traditional coat of arms of Provence—four red vertical bars on a gold field—originates from this period of Aragonese rule. In 1125, Provence was divided: territories north and west of the Durance passed to the Count of Toulouse, while the lands between the Durance, the Mediterranean Sea, the Rhône, and the Alps remained under the counts of Provence. The capital shifted from Arles to Aix-en-Provence and later to Brignoles. Under the House of Aragon, the 12th century saw significant ecclesiastical construction in Provence in the Romanesque style, combining elements of the Gallo-Roman tradition of the Rhône valley with the Lombard style of the Alps. Aix Cathedral was built on the site of the Roman forum and later partially rebuilt in #gothic style. The Church of St. Trophime in Arles became a major Romanesque monument, while Montmajour Abbey developed into an important pilgrimage site. The 12th century also witnessed the foundation of major Cistercian monasteries in remote areas of Provence, including Sénanque Abbey (1148–1178) in the Luberon, Thoronet Abbey near Draguignan (1160), and Silvacane Abbey at La Roque-d'Anthéron (1175). In the 13th century, the French Capetian monarchy extended its influence into southern France through dynastic marriages. Alphonse, Count of Poitou, son of King Louis VIII, married Joan, Countess of Toulouse. King Louis IX married Marguerite of Provence. In 1246, Charles of Anjou, the youngest son of Louis VIII, married Beatrice of Provence, heiress to the county. Provence subsequently became linked to the Angevin dynasty and the Kingdom of Naples. The popes in Avignon (14th century) In 1309, Pope Clement V, who was originally from Bordeaux, moved the Papal Curia to Avignon, a period known as the Avignon Papacy. From 1309 until 1377, seven popes reigned in Avignon before the Schism between the Roman and Avignon churches, which led to the creation of rival popes in both places. After that, three antipopes reigned in Avignon until 1423, when the papacy finally returned to Rome. Between 1334 and 1363 the old and new Papal Palaces of Avignon were built by Popes Benedict XII and Clement VI respectively; together the Palais des Papes was the largest Gothic palace in Europe. The 14th century was a terrible time in Provence, and all of Europe: the population of Provence had been about 400,000 people; the Black Death (1348–1350) killed fifteen thousand people in Arles, half the population of the city, and greatly reduced the population of the whole region. The defeat of the French Army during the Hundred Years' War forced the cities of Provence to build walls and towers to defend themselves against armies of former soldiers who ravaged the countryside. The Angevin rulers of Provence also had a difficult time. An assembly of nobles, religious leaders, and town leaders of Provence was organised to resist the authority of Queen Joan I of Naples (1343–1382). She was murdered in 1382 by her cousin and heir, Charles of Durazzo, who started a new war, leading to the separation of Nice, Puget-Théniers and Barcelonnette from Provence in 1388, and their attachment to the County of Savoy. From 1388 up to 1526, the area acquired by the Savoy was known as Terres Neuves de Provence; after 1526 it officially took on the name County of Nice. Good King René, the last ruler of Provence The 15th century saw a series of wars between the kings of Aragon and the counts of Provence. In 1423 the army of Alphonse of Aragon captured Marseille, and in 1443 they captured Naples, and forced its ruler, King René I of Naples, to flee. He eventually settled in one of his remaining territories, Provence. History and legend has given René the title "Good King René of Provence", though he only lived in Provence in the last ten years of his life, from 1470 to 1480, and his political policies of territorial expansion were costly and unsuccessful. Provence benefitted from population growth and economic expansion, and René was a generous patron of the arts, sponsoring painters Nicolas Froment, Louis Bréa, and other masters. He also completed one of the finest castles in Provence at Tarascon, on the Rhône river. When René died in 1480, his title passed to his nephew Charles du Maine. One year later, in 1481, when Charles died, the title passed to King Louis XI. Provence was legally incorporated into the French royal domain in 1486. 1486 to 1789 Soon after Provence became part of France, it became involved in the Wars of Religion that swept the country in the 16th century. Between 1493 and 1501, many Jews were expelled from their homes and sought sanctuary in the region of Avignon, which was still under the direct rule of the Pope. In 1545, the Parlement of Aix-en-Provence ordered the destruction of the villages of Lourmarin, Mérindol, Cabriéres in the Luberon, because their inhabitants were Vaudois, of Italian Piedmontese origin, and were not considered sufficiently orthodox Catholics. Most of Provence remained strongly Catholic, though Protestants controlled the Principality of Orange, an enclave ruled by William of the House of Orange-Nassau of the Netherlands, who inherited it in 1544 and which was not incorporated into France until 1673. An army of the Catholic League laid siege to the Protestant town of Mėnerbes in the Vaucluse between 1573 and 1578. The wars did not stop until the end of the 16th century, with the consolidation of power in Provence by the Bourbon kings. The semi-independent Parliament of Provence in Aix and some of the cities of Provence, particularly Marseille, continued to rebel against the authority of the Bourbon king. After uprisings in 1630–31 and 1648–1652, the young King Louis XIV had two large forts, fort St. Jean and Fort St. Nicholas, built at the harbour entrance to control the city's unruly population. At the beginning of the 17th century, Cardinal Richelieu began to build a naval arsenal and dockyard at Toulon to serve as a base for a new French Mediterranean fleet. The base was greatly enlarged by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV, who also commissioned his chief military engineer Vauban to strengthen the fortifications around the city. At the beginning of the 17th century, Provence had a population of about 450,000 people. It was predominantly rural, devoted to raising wheat, wine, and olives, with small industries for tanning, pottery, perfume-making, and ship and boat building. Provençal quilts, made from the mid-17th century onwards, were successfully exported to England, Spain, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands. There was considerable commerce along the coast, and up and down the Rhône river. The cities: Marseille, Toulon, Avignon and Aix-en-Provence, saw the construction of boulevards and richly decorated private houses. At the beginning of the 18th century, Provence suffered from the economic malaise of the end of the reign of Louis XIV. The Great Plague of Marseille struck the region between 1720 and 1722, beginning in Marseille, killing some 40,000 people. Still, by the end of the century, many artisanal industries began to flourish; making perfumes in Grasse; olive oil in Aix and the Alpilles; textiles in Orange, Avignon and Tarascon; and faience pottery in Marseille, Apt, Aubagne, and Moustiers-Sainte-Marie. Many immigrants arrived from Liguria and the Piedmont in Italy. By the end of the 18th century, Marseille had a population of 120,000 people, making it the third largest city in France. During the French Revolution Most of Provence, with the exception of Marseille, Aix and Avignon, was rural, conservative and largely royalist, and the Revolution was as violent and bloody in Provence as it was in other parts of France. On 30 April 1790, Fort Saint-Nicolas in Marseille was besieged, and many of the soldiers inside were massacred. On 17 October 1791, a massacre of royalists and religious figures took place in the ice storage rooms (glacières) of the prison of the Palace of the Popes in Avignon. When the radical Montagnards seized power from the Girondins in May 1793, a real counter-revolution broke out in Avignon, Marseille and Toulon. A revolutionary army under General Carteaux recaptured Marseille in August 1793 and renamed it "City without a Name" (Ville sans Nom.) In Toulon, the opponents of the Revolution handed the city to a British and Spanish fleet on 28 August 1793. A Revolutionary Army laid siege to the British positions for four months (see the Siege of Toulon) and finally, the enterprise of the young commander of artillery, Napoleon Bonaparte defeated the British and drove them out in December 1793. About 15,000 royalists escaped with the British fleet, but five to eight hundred of the 7,000 who remained were shot on the Champ de Mars, and Toulon was renamed Port la Montagne. The fall of the Montagnards in July 1794 was followed by a new White Terror aimed at the revolutionaries. Calm was not restored until the rise of the Directory to power in 1795. Provence produced some memorable figures in the French Revolution; both moderates such as the comte de Mirabeau and figures of the far left such as the Marquis de Sade; there was also the military figure Charles Barbaroux and the theorist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836), who instigated the coup of 18 Brumaire which brought Napoleon to power. The revolutionary anthem La Marseillaise despite its origins on the Rhine got its name because revolutionary volunteers from Marseille sang it on the streets of #Paris. Under Napoleon Napoleon restored the belongings and power of the families of the Ancien Régime in Provence. The British fleet of Admiral Horatio Nelson blockaded Toulon, and almost all maritime commerce was stopped, causing hardship and poverty. When Napoleon was defeated, his fall was celebrated in Provence. When he escaped from Elba on 1 March 1815, and landed at Golfe-Juan, he detoured to avoid the cities of Provence, which were hostile to him, and therefore directed his small force directly to the northeast of it. 19th century Provence enjoyed prosperity in the 19th century; the ports of Marseille and Toulon connected Provence with the expanding French Empire in North Africa and the Orient, especially after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. In April–July 1859, Napoleon III made a secret agreement with Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont, for France to assist in expelling Austria from the Italian Peninsula and bringing about a united Italy, in exchange for Piedmont ceding Savoy and the Nice region to France. He went to war with Austria in 1859 and won a victory at Solferino, which resulted in Austria ceding Lombardy to France. France immediately ceded Lombardy to Piedmont, and, in return, Napoleon received Savoy and Nice in 1860, and Roquebrune-Cap-Martin and Menton in 1861. The railroad connected Paris with Marseille (1848) and then with Toulon and Nice (1864). Nice, Antibes and Hyères became popular winter resorts for European royalty, including Queen Victoria. Under Napoleon III, Marseille grew to a population of 250,000, including a very large Italian community. Toulon had a population of 80,000. The large cities like Marseille and Toulon saw the building of churches, opera houses, grand boulevards, and parks. After the fall of Louis Napoleon following the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, barricades went up in the streets of Marseille (23 March 1871) and the Communards, led by Gaston Cremieux and following the lead of the Paris Commune, took control of the city. The Commune was crushed by the army and Cremieux was executed on 30 November 1871. Though Provence was generally conservative, it often elected reformist leaders; Prime Minister Léon Gambetta was the son of a Marseille grocer, and future prime minister Georges Clemenceau was elected deputy of Var in 1885. The second half of the 19th century saw a revival of the Provençal language and #culture, particularly traditional rural values. driven by a movement of writers and poets called the Félibrige, led by poet Frédéric Mistral. Mistral achieved literary success with his poem Mirèio (Mireille in French); he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1904. 20th century Between World War I and World War II, Provence was bitterly divided between the more conservative rural areas and the more radical big cities. There were widespread strikes in Marseille in 1919, and riots in Toulon in 1935. After the defeat of France by Germany in June 1940, France was divided into an occupied zone and unoccupied zone, with Provence in the unoccupied zone. Parts of eastern Provence were occupied by Italian soldiers. Collaboration and passive resistance gradually gave way to more active resistance, particularly after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Communist Party became active in the resistance. Jean Moulin, the deputy of Charles de Gaulle, the leader of the Free France resistance movement, was parachuted into Eygalières, in the Bouches-du-Rhône on 2 January 1942 to unite the diverse resistance movements in all of France against the Germans. In November 1942, following Allied landings in North Africa (Operation Torch), the Germans occupied all of Provence (Operation Attila) and then headed for Toulon (Case Anton). The French fleet at Toulon sabotaged its own ships to keep them from falling into German hands. The Germans began a systematic rounding-up of French Jews and refugees from Nice and Marseille. Many thousands were taken to concentration camps, and few survived. A large quarter around the port of Marseille was emptied of inhabitants and dynamited, so it would not serve as a base for the resistance. Nonetheless, the resistance grew stronger; the leader of the pro-German militia, the Milice, in Marseille was assassinated in April 1943. On 15 August 1944, two months after the Allied landings in Normandy (Operation Overlord), the Seventh United States Army under General Alexander Patch, with a Free French corps under General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, landed on the coast of Var between St. Raphael and Cavalaire (Operation Dragoon). The American forces moved north toward Manosque, Sisteron and Gap, while the French First Armored Division under General Vigier liberated Brignoles, Salon, Arles, and Avignon. The Germans in Toulon resisted until 27 August, and Marseille was not liberated until 25 August. After the end of the war, Provence faced an enormous task of reconstruction, particularly of the ports and railroads destroyed during the war. As part of this effort, the first modern concrete apartment block, the Unité d'habitation of Le Corbusier, was built in Marseille in 1947–52. In 1962, Provence absorbed a large number of French citizens who left Algeria after its independence. Since that time, large North African communities settled in and around the big cities, particularly Marseille and Toulon. In the 1940s, Provence underwent a cultural renewal, with the founding of the Avignon Festival of theatre (1947), the reopening of the Cannes Film Festival (begun in 1939), and many other major events. With the building of new highways, particularly the Paris Marseille autoroute which opened in 1970, Provence became destination for mass tourism from all over Europe. Many Europeans, particularly from Britain, bought summer houses in Provence. The arrival of the TGV high-speed trains shortened the trip from Paris to Marseille to less than four hours. In recent years, residents of Provence have struggled to reconcile economic development and population growth with their desire to preserve the region's unique landscape and culture. Geography The original Roman province was called Gallia Transalpina, then Gallia Narbonensis, or simply Provincia Nostra ('Our Province') or Provincia. It extended from the Alps to the Pyrenees and north to the Vaucluse, with its capital in Narbo Martius (present-day Narbonne). Location and borders In the 15th century, the County of Provence was bordered by the river Var on the east and the Rhône to the west, with the Mediterranean to the south, and a northern border that roughly followed the Durance. Bordering it on the northwest were two territories that had earlier formed part of Provence, i.e., the Comtat Venaissin, centered on Avignon which was ruled by the pope from the 13th century until the French Revolution, and, just north of this, the Principality of Orange, that through inheritance became a possession of William the Silent, who became the founder of the present ruling house of the Netherlands, the House of Orange-Nassau. The principality was independent between the 12th century and 1673 when it was occupied and then annexed by Louis XIV during one of his wars with its prince, Dutch stadtholder William III, the future king of England. At the end of the 14th century, another piece of Provence along the Italian border, including Nice and the lower Alps, was detached from Provence and attached to the lands of the duke of Savoy. The lower Alps were re-attached to France after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, but Nice did not return to France until 1860, during the reign of Napoleon III. The administrative region of Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur was created in 1982. It included Provence, plus the territory of the Comtat Venaissin around Avignon, and the Principality of Orange, the eastern portion of the Dauphiné, and the former County of Nice. The area immediately to the north, in the Drome, is sometimes referred to as the fr:Drôme Provençale, given its very similar features and landscapes. Rivers The Rhône river, on the western border of Provence, is one of the major rivers of France, and has been a highway of commerce and communications between inland France and the Mediterranean for centuries. It rises as the effluent of the Rhône Glacier in Valais, Switzerland, in the Saint-Gotthard massif, at an altitude of 1753 m. It is joined by the river Saône at Lyon. Along the Rhône Valley, it is joined on the right bank by the rivers Eyrieux, Ardèche, Cèze and Gardon (or Gard), on the left Alps bank by rivers Isère, Drôme, Ouvèze and Durance. At Arles, the Rhône divides itself in two arms, forming the Camargue delta, with all branches flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. One arm is called the "Grand Rhône"; the other one is the "Petit Rhône". The Durance river, a tributary of the Rhône, has its source in the Alps near Briançon. It flows south-west through Embrun, Sisteron, Manosque, Cavaillon, and Avignon, where it meets the Rhône. The Verdon River is a tributary of the Durance, rising at an altitude of 2,400 metres in the southwestern Alps near Barcelonette, and flowing southwest for 175 kilometres through the departments of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Var before it reaches the Durance at near Vinon-sur-Verdon, south of Manosque. The Verdon is best known for its canyon, the Verdon Gorge. This limestone canyon, also called the 'Grand Canyon of Verdon', 20 kilometres in length and more than 300 metres deep, is a popular climbing and sight-seeing area. The Var River rises near the Col de la Cayolle (2,326 m; 7,631 ft) in the Maritime Alps and flows generally southeast for 120 kilometres (75 mi) into the Mediterranean between Nice and Saint-Laurent-du-Var. Before Nice was returned to France in 1860, the Var marked the eastern border of France along the Mediterranean. The Var is the unique case in France of a river giving a name to a department, but not flowing through that department (due to subsequent adjustments to the department's boundaries). Camargue With an area of over 930 km2 (360 sq mi), Camargue is western Europe's largest river delta (technically an island, as it is wholly surrounded by water). It is a vast plain comprising large brine lagoons or étangs, cut off from the sea by sandbars and encircled by reed-covered marshes which are in turn surrounded by a large cultivated area. It is home to more than 400 species of birds, the brine ponds providing one of the few European habitats for the greater flamingo. Mountains By considering the Maritime Alps, along the border with Italy, as a part of the cultural Provence, they constitute the highest elevations of the region (the Punta dell'Argentera has an elevation of 3,297 m). They form the border between the French département Alpes-Maritimes and the Italian province of Cuneo. Mercantour National Park is located in the Maritime Alps. On the other hand, if the département Hautes Alpes is also considered as part of the modern Provence, then the alpin Écrins mountains represent the highest elevations of the region with the Barre des Écrins culminating at 4102m. Outside of the Maritime Alps, Mont Ventoux (Occitan: Ventor in classical norm or Ventour in Mistralian norm), at 1,909 metres (6,263 ft), is the highest peak in Provence. It is located some 20 km north-east of Carpentras, Vaucluse. On the north side, the mountain borders the Drôme département. It is nicknamed the "Giant of Provence", or "The Bald Mountain". Although geologically part of the Alps, is often considered to be separate from them, due to the lack of mountains of a similar height nearby. It stands alone to the west of the Luberon range, and just to the east of the Dentelles de Montmirail, its foothills. The top of the mountain is bare limestone without vegetation or trees. The white limestone on the mountain's barren peak means it appears from a distance to be snow-capped all year round (its snow cover actually lasts from December to April). The Alpilles are a chain of small mountains located about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Avignon. Although they are not particularly high – only some 387 metres (1,270 ft) at their highest point – the Alpilles stand out since they rise abruptly from the plain of the Rhône valley. The range is about 25 km long by about 8 to 10 km wide, running in an east–west direction between the Rhône and Durance rivers. The landscape of the Alpilles is one of arid limestone peaks separated by dry valleys. Montagne Sainte-Victoire is probably the best-known mountain in Provence, thanks to the painter Paul Cézanne, who could see it from his home, and painted it frequently. It is a limestone mountain ridge which extends over 18 kilometres between the départements of Bouches-du-Rhône and Var. Its highest point is the Pic des mouches at 1,011 m. The Massif des Maures (Moor Mountains) is a small chain of mountains that lies along the coast of the Mediterranean in the department of Var, between Hyères et Fréjus. Its highest point is the signal de la Sauvette, 780 metres high. The name is a souvenir of the Moors (Maures in Old French), Arabs and Berbers from North Africa, who settled on the coast of Provence in the 9th and 10th centuries. The Massif des Maures extends about sixty kilometres along the coast, and reaches inland about thirty kilometres. On the north it is bordered by a depression which is followed by the routes nationales 97 and 7, and the railroad line between Toulon and Nice. On the south it ends abruptly at the Mediterranean, forming a broken and abrupt coastline. The peninsula of Saint-Tropez is part of the Massif des Maures, along with the Giens Peninsula and the islands offshore of Hyères; Porquerolles, Port-Cros, and île du Levant. Cape Sicié, west of Toulon, as well as the Massif de Tanneron, belong geologically to the Massif des Maures. The Calanques The Calanques form a dramatic feature of the Provence coast, a 20-km long series of narrow inlets in the cliffs of the coastline between Marseille on the west and Cassis on the east. The best known examples of this formation can be found in the Massif des Calanques. The highest peak in the massif is Mont Puget, 565 metres high. The best known calanques of the Massif des Calanques include the Calanque de Sormiou, the Calanque de Morgiou, the Calanque d'En-Vau, the Calanque de Port-Pin and the Calanque de Sugiton. The calanques are remains of ancient river mouths formed mostly during Tertiary. Later, during Quaternary glaciation, as glaciers swept by, they further deepened those valleys which would eventually (at the end of the last glaciation) be invaded by the sea and become calanques. The Cosquer cave is an underwater grotto in the Calanque de Morgiou, 37 metres (121 ft) underwater, that was inhabited during Paleolithic era, when the sea level was much lower than today. Its walls are covered with paintings and engravings dating back to between 27,000 and 19,000 BC, depicting animals such as bison, ibex, and horses, as well as sea mammals such as seals, and at least one bird, the auk. Landscapes The garrigue is the typical landscape of Provence; it is a type of low, soft-leaved scrubland or chaparral found on limestone soils around the Mediterranean Basin, generally near the seacoast, where the climate is moderate, but where there are annual summer drought conditions. Juniper and stunted holm oaks are the typical trees; aromatic lime-tolerant shrubs such as lavender, sage, rosemary, wild thyme and Artemisia are common garrigue plants. The open landscape of the garrigue is punctuated by dense thickets of Kermes oak. Climate Most of Provence has a Mediterranean climate, characterised by hot, dry summers, mild winters, little snow, and abundant sunshine. Within Provence there are micro-climates and local variations, ranging from the Alpine climate inland from Nice to the continental climate in the northern Vaucluse. The winds of Provence are an important feature of the climate, particularly the mistral, a cold, dry wind which, especially in the winter, blows down the Rhône Valley to the Bouches-du-Rhône and the Var Departments, and often reaches over one hundred kilometres an hour. Bouches-du-Rhône Marseille, in the Bouches-du-Rhône, has an average of 59 days of rain a year, though when it does rain the rain is often torrential; the average annual rainfall is 544.4 mm. It snows an average of 2.3 days a year, and the snow rarely remains long. Marseille has an average of 2835.5 hours of sunshine a year. The average minimum temperature in January is 2.3 °C., and the average maximum temperature in July is 29.3 °C. The mistral blows an average of one hundred days a year. Var Toulon and Var, which includes St. Tropez and Hyères, have a climate slightly warmer, dryer and sunnier than Nice and the Alpes-Maritime, but also less sheltered from the wind. Toulon has an average of 2899.3 hours of sunshine a year, making it the sunniest city in metropolitan France, The average maximum daily temperature in August is 29.1 °C., and the average daily minimum temperature in January is 5.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 665 mm, with the most rain from October to November. Strong winds blow an average of 118 days a year in Toulon, compared with 76 days at Fréjus further east. The strongest Mistral wind recorded in Toulon was 130 kilometres an hour. Alpes-Maritimes Nice and the Alpes-Maritimes department are sheltered by the Alps, and are the most protected part of the Mediterranean coast. The winds in this department are usually gentle, blowing from the sea to the land, though sometimes the mistral blows strongly from the northwest, or, turned by the mountains, from the east. In 1956, a mistral wind from the northwest reached the speed of 180 kilometres an hour at Nice airport. Sometimes in summer the sirocco brings high temperatures and reddish desert sand from Africa (see Winds of Provence). Rainfall is infrequent, 63 days a year, but can be torrential, particularly in September, when storms and rain are caused by the difference between the colder air inland and the warm Mediterranean water temperature (20–24 degrees C.). The average annual rainfall in Nice is 767 mm, more than in Paris, but concentrated in fewer days. Snow is extremely rare, usually falling once every ten years. 1956 was a very exceptional year, when 20 centimetres of snow blanketed the coast. In January 1985 the coast between Cannes and Menton received 30 to 40 centimetres of snow. In the mountains, the snow is present from November to May. Nice has an annual average of 2694 hours of sunshine. The average maximum daily temperature in Nice in August is 28 °C., and the average minimum daily temperature in January is 6 °C. Alpes-de-Haute-Provence The department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence has a Mediterranean climate in the lower valleys under one thousand metres in altitude and an alpine climate in the high valleys, such as the valleys of the Blanche, the Haut Verdon and the Ubaye, which are over 2500 metres high. The alpine climate in the higher mountains is moderated by the warmer air from the Mediterranean. Haute-Provence has unusually high summer temperatures for its altitude and latitude (44 degrees north). The average summer temperature is 22 to 23 °C. at an altitude of 400 metres, and 18 to 19 °C. at the altitude of 1000 metres; and the winter average temperature is 4 to 5 °C. at 400 metres and 0 C. at 1000 metres. The lower valleys have 50 days of freezing temperatures a year, more in the higher valleys. Sometimes the temperatures in the high valleys can reach −30 °C. Because of this combination of high mountains and Mediterranean air, it is not unusual that the region frequently has some of the lowest winter temperatures and some of the hottest summer temperatures in France. Rainfall in Haute-Provence is infrequent – 60 to 80 days a year – but can be torrential; 650 to 900 mm. a year in the foothills and plateaus of the southwest, and in the valley of the Ubaye; and 900 to 1500 mm. in the mountains. Most rainfall comes in the autumn, in brief and intense storms; from mid-June to mid-August, rain falls during brief but violent thunderstorms. Thunder can be heard 30 to 40 days a year. Snow falls in the mountains from November to May, and in midwinter can be found down to altitude of 1000–1200 metres on the shady side of the mountains and 1300 to 1600 metres on the sunny side. Snowfalls are usually fairly light, and melt rapidly. The mistral, a wind blowing from the north and the northwest, is a feature of the climate in the western part of the department, bringing clear and dry weather. The eastern part of the department is more protected from the mistral. A southerly wind known as the marin brings warm air, clouds and rain. Haute-Provence is one of the sunniest regions of France, with an average of between 2,550 and 2,650 hours of sunshine annually in the north of the department, and 2,700 to 2,800 hours in the southwest. The clear nights and sunny days cause a sharp difference between nighttime and daytime temperatures. Because of the clear nights, the region is home of important observatories, such as the Observatory of Haute-Provence in Saint-Michel-Observatoire near Forcalquier. Vaucluse Vaucluse is the meeting point of three of the four different climatic zones of France; it has a Mediterranean climate in the south, an alpine climate in the northeast, around the mountains of Vaucluse and the massif of the Baronnies; and a continental climate in the northwest. The close proximity of these three different climates tends to moderate all of them, and the Mediterranean climate usually prevails. Orange in the Vaucluse has 2595 hours of sunshine a year. It rains an average of 80 days a year, for a total of 693.4 mm a year. The maximum average temperature in July is 29.6 °C., and the average minimum temperature in January is 1.3 °C. There are an average of 110 days of strong winds a year. Culture Art Artists have been painting in Provence since prehistoric times; paintings of bisons, seals, auks and horses dating to between 27,000 and 19,000 BC were found in the Cosquer Cave near Marseille. The 14th-century wooden ceiling of the cloister of Fréjus Cathedral has a remarkable series of paintings of biblical scenes, fantastic animals, and scenes from daily life, painted between 1350 and 1360. They include paintings of a fallen angel with the wings of a bat, a demon with the tail of a serpent, angels playing instruments, a tiger, an elephant, an ostrich, domestic and wild animals, a mermaid, a dragon, a centaur, a butcher, a knight, and a juggler. Nicolas Froment (1435–1486) was the most important painter of Provence during the Renaissance, best known for his triptych of the Burning Bush (c. 1476), commissioned by King René I of Naples. The painting shows a combination of Moses, the Burning Bush, and the Virgin Mary "who gave birth but remained a virgin", just as the bush of Moses "-burned with fire, and the bush was not consumed". This is the explication according to a plaque in the cathedral. A more likely reason for the juxtaposition is that in 1400 a shepherd, or shepherds, discovered a miraculous statue of the Virgin and Child inside another burning bush (thorn bush specifically), in the village of L'Epine in the present day department of La Marne. The site and statue were later visited by the "Bon Roi René". The wings of the triptych show King René with Mary Magdalene, St. Anthony and St. Maurice on one side, and Queen Jeanne de Laval, with Saint Catherine, John the Evangelist, and Saint Nicholas on the other. Louis Bréa (1450–1523) was a 15th-century painter, born in Nice, whose work is found in churches from Genoa to Antibes. His Retable of Saint-Nicholas (1500) is found in Monaco, and his Retable de Notre-Dame-de-Rosaire (1515) is found in Antibes. Pierre Paul Puget (1620–1694), born in Marseille, was a painter of portraits and religious scenes, but was better known for his sculptures, found in Toulon Cathedral, outside the Hôtel de Ville of Toulon, and in the Louvre. There is a mountain named for him near Marseille, and a square in Toulon. In the 19th and 20th centuries, many of the most famous painters in the world converged on Provence, drawn by the climate and the clarity of the light. The special quality of the light is partly a result of the Mistral (wind), which removes dust from the atmosphere, greatly increasing visibility. Adolphe Monticelli (1824–1886) was born in Marseille, moved to Paris in 1846 and returned to Marseille in 1870. His work influenced Vincent van Gogh who greatly admired him. Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) was born in Aix-en-Provence, and lived and worked there most of his life. The local landscapes, particularly Montagne Sainte-Victoire, featured often in his work. He also painted frequently at L'Estaque. Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) lived little more than two years in Provence, but his fame as a painter is largely a result of what he painted there. He lived in Arles from February 1888 to May 1889, and then in Saint-Remy from May 1889 until May 1890. Auguste Renoir (1841–1919) visited Beaulieu, Grasse, Saint Raphael and Cannes, before finally settling in Cagnes-sur-Mer in 1907, where he bought a farm in the hills and built a new house and workshop on the grounds. He continued to paint there until his death in 1919. His house is now a museum. Henri Matisse (1869–1954) first visited St. Tropez in 1904. In 1917 he settled in Nice, first at the Hotel Beau Rivage, then the Hotel de la Mediterranée, then la Villa des Allies in Cimiez. In 1921 he lived in an apartment at 1 Place Felix Faure in Nice, next to the flower market and overlooking the sea, where he lived until 1938. He then moved to the Hotel Regina in the hills of Cimiez, above Nice. During World War II he lived in Vence, then returned to Cimiez, where he died and is buried. Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) spent each summer from 1919 to 1939 on the Côte d'Azur, and moved there permanently in 1946, first at Vallauris, then at Mougins, where he spent his last years. Pierre Bonnard (1867–1947) retired to and died at Le Cannet. Georges Braque (1882–1963) painted frequently at L'Estaque between 1907 and 1910. Henri-Edmond Cross (1856–1910) discovered the Côte d'Azur in 1883 and painted at Monaco and Hyères. Maurice Denis (1870–1943) painted at St. Tropez and Bandol. André Derain (1880–1954) painted at L'Estaque and Martigues. Raoul Dufy (1877–1953), whose wife was from Nice, painted in Forcalquier, Marseille and Martigues. Albert Marquet (1873–1947) painted at Marseille, St. Tropez and L'Estaque. Claude Monet (1840–1927) visited Menton, Bordighera, Juan-les-Pins, Monte Carlo, Nice, Cannes, Beaulieu and Villefranche, and painted a number of seascapes of Cap Martin, near Menton, and at Cap d'Antibes. Edvard Munch (1863–1944) visited and painted in Nice and Monte Carlo (where he developed a passion for gambling), and rented a villa at Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat in 1891. Paul Signac (1863–1935) visited St. Tropez in 1892, and bought a villa, La Hune, at the foot of citadel in 1897. It was at his villa that his friend, Henri Matisse, painted his famous Luxe, Calme et Volupté" in 1904. Signac made numerous paintings along the coast. Pierre Deval (1897–1993), a French modernist and figurative painter, lived and worked at the Domaine d'Orvès in La Valette-du-Var from 1925 until his death in 1993. Nicolas de Staël (1914–1955) lived in Nice and Antibes. Yves Klein (1928–1962), a native of Nice, is considered an important figure in post-war European art. Sacha Sosno (1937–2013) is a French painter and sculptor living and working in Nice. Source and Bibliography about artists on the Mediterranean Méditerranée de Courbet á Matisse, catalogue of the exhibit at the Grand Palais, Paris from September 2000 to January 2001. Published by the Réunion des musées nationaux, 2000. Architecture Literature Historically, the language spoken in Provence was Provençal, a dialect of the Occitan language, also known as langue d'oc, and closely related to Catalan. There are several regional variations: vivaro-alpin, spoken in the Alps, and the Provençal variations of south, including the maritime, the rhoadanien (in the Rhône Valley) and the Niçois (in Nice). Niçois is the archaic form of Provençal closest to the original language of the troubadours, and is sometimes to said to be literary language of its own. Provençal was widely spoken in Provence until the beginning of the 20th century, when the French government launched an intensive and largely successful effort to replace regional languages with French. Today, Provençal is taught in schools and universities in the region, but is spoken regularly by a small number of people, probably less than 500,000, mostly elderly. Writers and poets in the Occitan language The golden age of Provençal literature, more correctly called Occitan literature, was the 11th century and the 12th century, when the troubadours broke away from classical Latin literature and composed romances and love songs in their own vernacular language. Among the most famous troubadours was Folquet de Marselha, whose love songs became famous all over Europe, and who was praised by Dante in his Divine Comedy. In his later years, Folquet gave up poetry to become the Abbot of Thoronet Abbey, and then Bishop of Toulouse, where he fiercely persecuted the Cathars. In the middle of the 19th century, there was a literary movement to revive the language, called the Félibrige, led by the poet Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914), who shared the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1904. Provençal writers and poets who wrote in Occitan include: Raimbaut de Vaqueiras (1180–1207) Louis Bellaud (1543–1588) Théodore Aubanel (1829–1886) Joseph d'Arbaud (1874–1950) Robert Lafont (1923–2009) French authors Alphonse Daudet (1840–1897) was the best-known French writer from Provence in the 19th century, though he lived mostly in Paris and Champrosay. He was best known for his Lettres de mon moulin (Letters from My Windmill) (1869) and the Tartarin of Tarascon trilogy (1872, 1885, 1890). His short story L'Arlésienne (1872) was made into a three-act play with incidental music by Georges Bizet. Marcel Pagnol (1895–1970), born in Aubagne, is known both as a filmmaker and for his stories of his childhood, Le Château de ma Mère, La Gloire de mon Père, and Le Temps des secrets. He was the first filmmaker to become a member of the Académie Française in 1946. Colette (Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette) (1873–1954), although she was not from Provence, became particularly attached to Saint-Tropez. After World War II, she headed a committee which saw that the village, badly damaged by the war, was restored to its original beauty and character Jean Giono (1895–1970), born in Manosque, wrote about peasant life in Provence, inspired by his imagination and by his vision of ancient Greece. Paul Arène (1843–1896), born in Sisteron, wrote about life and the countryside around his home town. Émigrés, exiles, and expatriates In the 19th and 20th centuries, the climate and lifestyle of Provence attracted writers almost as much as it attracted painters. It was particularly popular among British, American and Russian writers in the 1920s and 1930s. Edith Wharton (1862–1937), bought Castel Sainte-Claire in 1927, on the site of a former convent in the hills above Hyères, where she lived during the winters and springs until her death in 1937. F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940) and his wife Zelda first visited the Riviera in 1924, stopping at Hyères, Cannes and Monte Carlo, eventually staying at St. Raphaël, where he wrote much of The Great Gatsby and began Tender is the Night. Ivan Bunin (1870–1953), the first Russian writer to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, went to France after the Russian Revolution, set several of his short stories on the Côte d'Azur, and had a house in Grasse. Somerset Maugham (1874–1965) bought a house, the Villa Mauresque, in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat in 1928, and, except for the years of World War II, spent much of his time there until his death. Other English-speaking writers who live in or have written about Provence include: Peter Mayle Carol Drinkwater John Lanchester Willa Cather Charles Spurgeon (who spent long periods in Menton) Katherine Mansfield Lawrence Durrell Scientists, scholars and prophets Pytheas (4th century BCE) was a geographer and mathematician who lived in the Greek colony of Massalia, now Marseille. He conducted an expedition by sea north around Great Britain to Iceland, and was the first to describe the midnight sun and polar regions. Petrarch (1304–1374) was an Italian poet and scholar, considered the father of humanism and one of the first great figures of Italian literature. He spent much of his early life in Avignon and Carpentras as an official at the Papal court in Avignon, and wrote a famous account of his ascent of Mount Ventoux near Carpentras. Nostradamus (1503–1566), a Renaissance apothecary and reputed clairvoyant best known for his alleged prophecies of great world events, was born in Saint-Remy-de-Provence and lived and died in Salon-de-Provence. Music Music written about Provence includes: "Di Provenza il mar, il suol", an aria for baritone from La traviata (Act 2) by Giuseppe Verdi The opera Mireille by Charles Gounod, after Frédéric Mistral's poem Mirèio Georges Bizet' L'Arlésienne, incidental music to Alphonse Daudet's eponymous play L'Arlesiana, an opera by Francesco Cilea, based on the play L'Arlésienne by Alphonse Daudet Darius Milhaud: Le Carnaval d'Aix, Suite provençale, La Cheminée du roi René, Suite française (5. Provence), Ouverture méditerranéenne The Tableaux de Provence (Pictures of Provence), a suite for alto saxophone and orchestra composed by Paule Maurice Eugène Reuchsel: Promenades en Provence, Huit Images de Provence, for organ The Suite Provençale for concert band by Jan Van der Roost Two song settings of Vladimir Nabokov's poem "Provence" in Russian and English versions by composers Ivan Barbotin and James DeMars on the 2011 contemporary classical album Troika Cinema Provence has a special place in the history of the motion picture – one of the first projected motion pictures, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat (The Arrival of a Train into La Ciotat Station), a fifty-second silent film, was made by Auguste and Louis Lumière at the train station of the coastal town of La Ciotat. It was shown to an audience in Paris on 28 December 1895, causing a sensation. Before its commercial premiere in Paris, the film was shown to invited audiences in several French cities, including La Ciotat. It was shown at the Eden Theater in September 1895, making that theatre one of the first motion picture theatres, and the only of the first theatres still showing movies in 2009. Three other of the earliest Lumiere films, Partie de cartes, l'Arroseur arrosé (the first known filmed comedy), and Repas de bébé, were also filmed in La Ciotat in 1895, at the Villa du Clos des Plages, the summer residence of the Lumière Brothers. Parks and gardens Cuisine The cuisine of Provence is the result of the warm, dry Mediterranean climate; the rugged landscape, good for grazing sheep and goats but, outside of the Rhône Valley, poor soil for large-scale agriculture; and the abundant seafood on the coast. The basic ingredients are olives and olive oil, garlic, sardines, rockfish, sea urchins and octopus, lamb and goat, chickpeas, and local fruits, such as grapes, peaches, apricots, strawberries, cherries, and the famous melons of Cavaillon. The fish frequently found on menus in Provence are the rouget, a small red fish usually eaten grilled, and the loup (known elsewhere in France as the bar), often grilled with fennel over the wood of grapevines. Aïoli is a thick emulsion sauce made from olive oil flavoured with crushed garlic. It often accompanies a bourride, a fish soup, or is served with potatoes and cod (fr. Morue). There are many recipes. Bouillabaisse is the classic seafood dish of Marseille. The traditional version is made with three fish: scorpionfish, sea robin, and European conger, plus an assortment of other fish and shellfish, such as John Dory, monkfish, sea urchins, crabs and sea spiders included for flavour. The seasoning is as important as the fish, including salt, pepper, onion, tomato, saffron, fennel, sage, thyme, bay laurel, sometimes orange peel, and a cup of white wine or cognac. In Marseille the fish and the broth are served separately—the broth is served over thick slices of bread with rouille (see below). Brandade de morue is a thick purée of salt cod, olive oil, milk, and garlic, usually spread on toast. Daube provençale is a stew made with cubed beef braised in wine, vegetables, garlic, and herbes de provence. Variations also call for olives, prunes, and flavouring with duck fat, vinegar, brandy, lavender, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, juniper berries, or orange peel. For best flavour, it is cooked in several stages, and cooled for a day between each stage to allow the flavours to meld together. In the Camargue area of France, bulls killed in the bullfighting festivals are sometimes used for daube. Fougasse is the traditional bread of Provence, round and flat with holes cut out by the baker. Modern versions are baked with olives or other fillings inside. It is roughly equivalent to focaccia. Pissaladière is another speciality of Nice. Though it resembles a pizza, it is made with bread dough and the traditional variety never has a tomato topping. It is usually sold in bakeries, and is topped with a bed of onions, lightly browned, and a kind of paste, called pissalat, made from sardines and anchovies, and the small black olives of Nice, of the Cailletier or Taggiasca variety, also found in Liguria. Ratatouille is a traditional dish of stewed vegetables, which originated in Nice. Panisse is a dish made of chickpea flour, which is boiled into a paste, cooled and set into a mould, and then fried. It is not dissimilar to socca. Rouille is a mayonnaise with red pimentos, often spread onto bread and added to fish soups. Tapenade is a relish consisting of pureed or finely chopped olives, capers, and olive oil, usually spread onto bread and served as an hors d'œuvre. The Thirteen desserts is a Christmas tradition in Provence, when thirteen different dishes, representing Jesus and the twelve apostles, and each with a different significance, are served after the large Christmas meal. Herbes de Provence (or Provençal herbs) are a mixture of fresh or dried herbs from Provence which are commonly used in Provençal cooking. =### Wines= The wines of Provence were probably introduced into Provence around 600 BC by the Greek Phoceans who founded Marseille and Nice. After the Roman occupation, in 120 BC the Roman Senate forbade the growing of vines and olives in Provence, to protect the profitable trade in exporting Italian wines, but in the late Roman empire retired soldiers from Roman Legions settled in Provence and were allowed to grow grapes. The Romans complained about the competition from and poor quality of the wines of Provence. In the 1st century AD the Roman poet Martial condemned the wines of Marseille as "terrible poisons, and never sold at a good price." As recently as the 1970s the wines of Provence had the reputation of being rather ordinary: In 1971 wine critic Hugh Johnson wrote: "The whites are dry and can lack the acidity to be refreshing; the reds are straightforward, strong and a trifle dull; it is usually the rosés, often orange-tinted, which have most appeal." He added, "Cassis and Bandol distinguish themselves for their white and red wines respectively. Cassis (no relation of the blackcurrant syrup) is livelier than the run of Provençal white wine, and Bandol leads the red in much the same way." Since that time, cultivation of poorer varieties has been reduced and new technologies and methods have improved the quality considerably. The wines of Provence are grown under demanding conditions; hot weather and abundant sunshine (Toulon, near Bandol, has the most sunshine of any city in France) which ripens the grapes quickly; little rain, and the mistral. The great majority of the wines produced in Provence are rosés. The most characteristic grape is mourvèdre, used most famously in the red wines of Bandol. Cassis is the only area in Provence known for its white wines. There are three regional classifications (Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC)) in Provence: AOC Côtes de Provence dates to 1997, though these wines were recognised in the 17th and 18th centuries, notably by Madame de Sévigné, who reported the habits and preferred wines of the Court of Louis XIV. The title Côtes de Provence was already in use in 1848, but production was nearly destroyed by phylloxera later in that century, and took decades to recover. The appellation today covers 84 communes in Var and Bouches-du-Rhône, and one in Alpes-Maritimes. The principal grapes used in the red wines are grenache, mourvèdre, cinsault, tibouren, and syrah. For the white wines, clairette, vermentino, sémillon, and ugni blanc. The appellation covers 20,300 hectares (50,000 acres). 80 percent of the production is rosé wine, fifteen percent is red wine, and 5 percent white wine. AOC Coteaux d'Aix-en-Provence was classified in 1985. The wines of Aix were originally planted by veterans of the Roman legions in the 1st century BC, and were promoted in the 15th century by René I of Naples, the last ruler of Provence. Most vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera in the 19th century, and very slowly were reconstituted. The principal grapes for red wines and rosés are grenache, mourvèdre, cinsault, syrah, counoise, carignan, and cabernet sauvignon. White wines are made mainly with bourboulenc, clairette, grenache blanc, and vermentino. There are 4,000 hectares (9,900 acres) in production. 70 percent of the wines are rosés, 25 percent red wines, and 5 percent white wines. AOC Coteaux varois en Provence is a recent AOC in Provence. The name Coteaux Varois was first used in 1945, and became an AOC in 1993. The name was changed to Couteaux Varois en Provence in 2005. The red wines principally use grenache, cinsaut, mourvèdre, and syrah grapes. White wines use clairette, grenache blanc, rolle blanc, sémillon, and ugni blanc. There are 2,200 hectares (5,400 acres) in this AOL. It produces 80 percent rosés, 17 percent red wines, and 3 percent white wines. In addition, there are five local classifications (Les appellations locales): Bandol AOC, grown in the department of Var on the coast west of Toulon, mostly around the villages of La Cadiere d'Azur and Castellet. Wines of this appellation must have at least fifty percent mourvèdre grapes, though most have considerably more. Other grapes used are grenache, cinsault, syrah, and carignan. AOC Cassis, made near the coastal town of Cassis, between Toulon and Marseille, was the first wine in Provence to be classified as an AOC in 1936, and is best known for its white wines. Wines from Cassis are described in French literature as early as the 12th century. The grapes most commonly used are marsanne, clairette, ugni blanc, sauvignon blanc, and Bourboulenc. Rosé wines use grenache, carignan, and mourvèdre. AOC Bellet; at the time of the French Revolution, the little town of Saint Roman de Bellet (now part of Nice) was the center of an important wine region. Production was nearly destroyed by phylloxera and by the two wars, and only in 1946 was the region again producing fully. It was classified as an AOC in 1941. Today the region is one of the smallest in France; just 47 hectares. The grapes are grown on terraces along the left bank of the Var River, east of the town. The major grapes grown for red wines and rosés are braquet, Folle, and cinsault, blended sometimes with grenache. For white wines, the major grapes grown are rolle blanc, roussane, spagnol, and mayorquin; the secondary grapes are clairette, bourboulenc, chardonnay, pignerol, and muscat. Palette AOC; the little village of Palete, four kilometres east of Aix-en-Provence, has long been famous for the production of a vin cuit, or fortified wine, used in the traditional Provence Christmas dessert, the Thirteen desserts, and the Christmas cake called pompo à l'oli, or the olive-oil pump. This production was nearly abandoned, but is now being recreated. The main grapes for red wine are grenache, mourvèdre, and cinsaut; for the white wines clairette. AOC Les Baux de Provence; was established as an AOC for red and rosé wines in 1995. South of Avignon, it occupies the north and south slopes of the Alpilles, up to an altitude of 400 metres (1,300 ft), and extends about thirty kilometres from east to west. The principal grapes for the red wines are grenache, mourvèdre, and syrah. For the rosés, the main grapes are syrah and cinsault. =### Pastis= Pastis is the traditional liqueur of Provence, flavoured with anise and typically containing 40–45% alcohol by volume. When absinthe was banned in France in 1915, the major absinthe producers (then Pernod Fils and Ricard, who have since merged as Pernod Ricard) reformulated their drink without the banned wormwood and with more aniseed flavour, coming from star anise, sugar and a lower alcohol content, creating pastis. It is usually drunk diluted with water, which it turns a cloudy color. It is especially popular in and around Marseille. Sports Pétanque, a form of boules, is a popular sport played in towns and villages all over Provence. A more athletic version of the sport called jeu provençal was popular throughout Provence in the 19th century – this version is featured in the novels and memoires of Marcel Pagnol; players ran three steps before throwing the ball, and it resembled at times a form of ballet. The modern version of the game was created in 1907 at the town of La Ciotat by a former champion of jeu provençal named Jules Hugues, who was unable to play because of his rheumatism. He devised a new set of rules where the field was much smaller, and players did not run before throwing the ball, but remained inside a small circle with their feet together. This gave the game its name, lei peds tancats, in the Provençal dialect of Occitan, 'feet together'. The first tournament was played in La Ciotat in 1910. The first steel boules were introduced in 1927. The object is to throw a ball (boule) as close as possible to a smaller ball, called the cochonnet, (this kind of throw is called to faire le point or pointer); or to knock away a boules of the opponent that is close to the cochonnet (this is called to tirer). Players compete one-on-one (tête-à-tête), in teams of two (doublettes) or teams of three (triplettes). The object is to accumulate thirteen points. The point belongs to the ball the closest to the cochonnet. A player pitches balls until he can regain the point (reprenne le point) by having his ball closest to the cochonnet. Each ball from a single team, if there are no other balls from the other team closer to the cochonnet, counts as a point. The points are counted when all of the balls have been tossed by both teams. #france #travel #history #europe #culture
（引言） “不到喀什，就不算到过新疆。”这句在旅行者中广为流传的谚语，不仅是对这座位于中国最西端城市的最高赞誉，更是对其深厚文化底蕴和独特地理位置的精准概括。喀什，全称“喀什噶尔”，意为“玉石般的地方”。它静静地依偎在帕米尔高原的群峰脚下，塔克拉玛干沙漠的边缘。这里是东西方文明的十字路口，是古代 #丝绸之路 上最耀眼的明珠。当清晨的第一缕阳光洒在古老的土石建筑上，当宣礼塔上传来悠扬的诵经声，你会瞬间被拉回到那个驼铃声声、商贾云集的辉煌时代。在这片神奇的土地上，时间仿佛放慢了脚步，历史与现实在这里交织成一幅绚丽多姿的画卷。#喀什 #新疆旅游 #丝绸之路 （地理与历史的交汇） 喀什的地理位置极其特殊。它西接塔吉克斯坦、阿富汗、巴基斯坦，南邻喀喇昆仑山，北倚天山，东部则是浩瀚无垠的塔克拉玛干沙漠。正是这样独特的地理位置，使得喀什自古以来就是中西交通的咽喉枢纽。早在两千多年前的汉代，张骞出使西域，便在史书上留下了关于“疏勒国”（喀什古称）的记载。那时的疏勒，已经是丝绸之路南道和中道的交汇点，无数满载着丝绸、瓷器、茶叶的东方驼队，与运送着香料、琉璃、珠宝的西方商队在这里相遇。他们在这里交换商品，也在这里交流文化、宗教与思想。#历史名城 #文化交融 翻开喀什厚重的历史画卷，我们会看到各种文明在这里碰撞与融合。在佛教传入中原之前，喀什曾是西域著名的佛教中心。后来，随着历史的演进，伊斯兰教逐渐在这片土地上扎根，并最终成为这里的主流信仰。公元10世纪至13世纪，喀喇汗王朝在这里建都，喀什迎来了其历史上的一个黄金时期。著名的《突厥语大词典》和长诗《福乐智慧》便诞生于这一时期，它们不仅是维吾尔族文学的瑰宝，也是世界文化遗产的重要组成部分。无数的王朝兴替、战火洗礼，都没有将这座城市抹去，反而赋予了它更加坚韧和包容的品格。#丝路重镇 #文化遗产 （漫步老城：活着的千年古城） 要真正读懂喀什，就必须走进喀什老城（Kashgar Old City）。这是一座“活着的”千年古城，也是世界上现存规模最大的生土建筑群之一。老城内的街道犹如迷宫般错综复杂，曲径通幽。如果不熟悉地形，很容易在其中迷失方向。然而，正是这种“迷失”，让漫步老城成为一种充满惊喜的体验。#喀什老城 #古城漫步 老城的民居多为土木结构，土黄色的外墙在阳光的照耀下散发着温暖而古朴的气息。许多房屋都有着精美的木雕门窗，阳台上种满了各色花草，绿意盎然。这里的建筑格局十分独特，有的房屋跨街而建，形成半掩蔽的“过街楼”；有的则是层层叠叠，依地形而建，错落有致。近年来，为了改善居民的生活条件和消除地震隐患，当地政府对老城进行了大规模的保护性改造。改造后的老城不仅保留了原有的风貌和肌理，还通了水电、天然气和互联网，让古老的街区焕发出了新的生机。#生土建筑 #历史街区 走在老城的石板路上，你会感受到浓浓的生活气息。街边的老茶馆里，几位戴着花帽的维吾尔族大爷正围坐在一起，喝着砖茶，聊着家常；铁匠铺里，炉火熊熊，铁匠师傅正挥舞着铁锤，敲打着各式各样的铜器和铁器；木雕坊里，手艺人正屏气凝神，在木板上雕刻着繁复的几何图案。这里没有大城市的喧嚣与浮躁，只有岁月静好的安逸与祥和。如果你有幸遇到当地人的婚礼，还会被邀请加入欢快的麦西热甫（维吾尔族传统舞蹈）中，感受那份淳朴与热情。#民俗风情 #非遗手艺 （信仰的见证：艾提尕尔清真寺与香妃墓） 在喀什，宗教信仰不仅是人们精神世界的寄托，也深深融入了他们的日常生活和建筑艺术中。位于市中心的艾提尕尔清真寺，是全疆乃至全中国最大的清真寺之一，也是喀什的精神地标。这座始建于公元1442年的宏伟建筑，融合了维吾尔族传统建筑与伊斯兰建筑的艺术风格。巨大的黄色砖砌大门高耸入云，两侧的宣礼塔巍峨挺拔。走进清真寺内部，宽敞的庭院里绿树成荫，给人一种宁静肃穆之感。每逢古尔邦节、肉孜节等重要节日，数以万计的穆斯林会从四面八方涌来，在这里举行盛大的会礼，场面极其壮观。#艾提尕尔清真寺 #伊斯兰建筑 除了艾提尕尔清真寺，位于喀什市东郊的阿帕克霍加墓（Afaq Khoja Mausoleum），即人们熟知的“香妃墓”，也是喀什不可错过的历史遗迹。这座始建于公元1640年的家族陵墓，是新疆现存最大、最精美的伊斯兰圆顶建筑。陵墓的外部全部用绿色、黄色和蓝色的琉璃砖镶嵌，拼凑出各种美丽的花纹，在阳光下熠熠生辉。传说中，这里安葬着清朝乾隆皇帝的宠妃——身上带有异香的“香妃”（即容妃）。虽然历史学家对此仍有争议，但这凄美的传说无疑为这座古老的陵墓增添了几分浪漫与神秘的色彩。#香妃墓 #传说与历史 （舌尖上的喀什：巴扎里的烟火气） 旅行的意义，不仅在于看风景，更在于品尝当地的美食。而要寻找喀什最地道的美食，就必须去巴扎（Bazaar，即集市）。喀什的巴扎历史悠久，规模宏大，其中最著名的当属“星期天大巴扎”（Kashgar Sunday Market）。每到星期天，周边的农牧民就会赶着牛羊、带着自家的农副产品来到这里交易。整个巴扎人山人海，叫卖声、讨价还价声此起彼伏，热闹非凡。#喀什大巴扎 #巴扎文化 喀什的美食，充满了浓郁的西域风情，是肉食者和碳水爱好者的天堂。首先不容错过的就是抓饭（Polo）。一大锅金黄色的抓饭，米粒饱满，油光发亮，里面混合着软烂的羊肉、甜美的胡萝卜和葡萄干，吃上一口，满嘴留香。烤肉（烤羊肉串）更是喀什街头最常见的美食，大块的羊肉在炭火上烤得滋滋作响，撒上孜然和辣椒面，外焦里嫩，鲜美无比。#新疆美食 #吃货日记 此外，还有烤包子（Samsa），金黄酥脆的面皮里包裹着羊肉洋葱馅，刚出炉时一口咬下去，汁水四溢，令人回味无穷。拉条子（Laghman，即手拉面）也是当地人的主食之一，筋道的面条配上由羊肉、西红柿、辣椒、皮芽子（洋葱）等炒制的菜码，酸辣开胃。当然，喀什也是著名的“瓜果之乡”。无论是甜过初恋的哈密瓜、无花果，还是汁多味美的石榴、葡萄，都能让你的味蕾得到极大的满足。在喀什的街头，随处可见卖鲜榨石榴汁的小摊，一杯红宝石般的石榴汁下肚，清凉解渴，沁人心脾。#烤包子 #手抓饭 （现代与传统的交响） 如今的喀什，不仅是一座历史悠久的古城，也是一座充满活力的现代化都市。作为中国设立的第六个经济特区，喀什正迎来前所未有的发展机遇。在共建“一带一路”倡议的推动下，喀什的交通基础设施得到了极大的改善。喀什机场已经开通了多条国内国际航线，南疆铁路和喀和铁路将喀什与中国内地紧密连接在一起，而中巴经济走廊的建设更是让喀什成为了中国向西开放的重要窗口。#一带一路 #经济特区 走在喀什的新城区，宽阔的马路、高耸的写字楼、现代化的购物中心与古老的老城区形成了鲜明的对比。然而，这种现代与传统的交汇并不是割裂的，而是和谐共生的。年轻一代的喀什人，既能熟练地使用智能手机、在互联网上冲浪，又能弹奏着都塔尔，唱着古老的木卡姆。他们穿着时尚的服装，但也绝不会忘记在重大节日穿上传统的艾德莱斯绸。这种对传统的坚守与对现代的拥抱，使得喀什散发出一种独特的时代魅力。#城市发展 #传统与现代 （民俗与艺术：木卡姆的悠扬） 如果不提及维吾尔族木卡姆艺术，对喀什的描述就是不完整的。木卡姆是一种集歌、舞、乐于一体的大型综合艺术形式，被称为“维吾尔族音乐的灵魂”。在喀什的许多茶馆或庭院里，你经常能听到琴师拨动热瓦普或弹拨尔的琴弦，歌手唱起高亢而悲怆的木卡姆曲调。这些曲调中，既有对爱情的赞美，也有对生活苦难的倾诉，充满了深邃的哲学意蕴和浓烈的情感力量。2005年，“中国新疆维吾尔木卡姆艺术”被联合国教科文组织列入“人类口头和非物质遗产代表作”名录，这不仅是喀什的骄傲，也是全人类的文化财富。#木卡姆 #非物质文化遗产 #艺术之美 喀什的民间手工艺同样令人叹为观止。在老城的手工业街（职人街），你可以看到世代相传的手艺人如何用灵巧的双手化腐朽为神奇。从精美的铜器、华丽的陶器、绚丽的艾德莱斯绸，到手工打制的民族乐器，每一件手工艺品都凝聚着工匠们的心血和智慧，承载着维吾尔族深厚的文化底蕴。购买一件当地的手工艺品，不仅是带走了一份纪念，更是带走了一段关于喀什的文化记忆。#工匠精神 #手工艺品 （周边探索：大自然的鬼斧神工） 喀什的魅力不仅在于城市本身，其周边壮丽的自然风光同样令人心驰神往。从喀什出发，沿着蜿蜒的中巴友谊公路（喀喇昆仑公路）向南行驶，你将进入壮美的帕米尔高原。在这里，你可以看到波光粼粼的白沙湖，宛如镶嵌在群山之中的一块翡翠；你可以仰望海拔7546米的“冰山之父”慕士塔格峰，感受大自然的雄浑与伟大；你还可以探访位于塔什库尔干的石头城遗址，寻觅古代丝绸之路的苍凉印记。#帕米尔高原 #慕士塔格峰 #自驾游 在帕米尔高原上，世代居住着被称为“高山之鹰”的塔吉克族。他们热情好客，民风淳朴。如果你有幸在春天来到这里，或许还能赶上塔吉克族的传统节日——引水节或播种节，感受他们独特的民俗风情。大自然的鬼斧神工与丰富的人文景观在这里完美结合，使得喀什周边的旅行路线成为了无数户外爱好者和摄影师的终极梦想。#新疆自驾 #塔吉克族 （结语） 喀什，这座被时光眷顾的古城，犹如一部厚重而迷人的史书。每一条小巷，每一座建筑，每一张笑脸，都在诉说着过去、现在与未来的故事。在这里，你可以跨越千年的时空，触摸历史的脉搏；在这里，你可以品味多元文化的交融，感受信仰的力量；在这里，你可以品尝人间烟火的美味，体验生活的美好。 旅行至此，你会明白，喀什不仅是一个地理意义上的目的地，更是一个精神意义上的归宿。它让你在喧嚣的世界中找到内心的宁静，让你在浩瀚的宇宙中感受到人类文明的伟大。随着“一带一路”的深入推进，喀什这座昔日的丝路重镇，正以更加开放和包容的姿态，迎接来自世界各地的旅人。李伟在此强烈推荐，如果你的一生只有一次去新疆的机会，请把留给喀什，因为喀什，永远值得你跨越千山万水，奔赴而来。#旅行推荐 #大美新疆 #一生必去 #Kashgar #Xinjiang #SilkRoad #China #Travel
云上佛国，人间仙山：峨眉山的历史、自然与信仰之旅 峨眉山，这座傲然挺立于中国四川盆地西南边缘的雄伟山峰，自古以来便以“峨眉天下秀”的美誉名扬四海。作为中国四大佛教名山之一，峨眉山不仅是普贤菩萨（Samantabhadra）的道场，更是一座汇聚了深厚历史底蕴、绝美自然风光与璀璨宗教文化的巨大宝库。1996年，峨眉山与相邻的乐山大佛共同被联合国教科文组织列入《世界遗产名录》，成为全人类共同珍视的自然与文化双重遗产。站在这片神奇的土地上，无论是虔诚朝圣的信徒还是寻幽探秘的游人，都会被其拔地而起的磅礴气势与云雾缭绕的仙境氛围所深深折服。在这篇文章中，我们将踏上一场穿越千年的时空之旅，全方位解读峨眉山的宗教历史、生态奇观以及它在现代旅游中的无限魅力。 #峨眉山 #四川旅游 #世界文化遗产 1. 亿万年的造化：峨眉山的地理与生态奇观 峨眉山的最高峰万佛顶海拔高达3099米，从秀丽的山麓到巍峨的山巅，巨大的高差造就了这座名山极为复杂的垂直气候带和异常丰富的生物多样性。古人常言“一山有四季，十里不同天”，这句话在峨眉山得到了最完美的印证。从山脚的亚热带常绿阔叶林，到半山腰的温带针阔混交林，再到接近金顶的亚高山针叶林，游客在短短几个小时的攀登过程中，仿佛跨越了数千公里的纬度变化。 #自然生态 #生物多样性 峨眉山被誉为“植物的王国”和“动物的乐园”。这里孕育了超过3200多种植物，约占中国植物总数的十分之一。在这片广袤的原始森林中，你可以看到与恐龙同时代的“植物活化石”——珙桐（鸽子树），每当春夏之交，洁白的花朵如白鸽展翅，微风拂过，宛如群鸽飞舞，令人叹为观止。此外，峨眉山的杜鹃花也堪称一绝，春季时节，漫山遍野的杜鹃花竞相绽放，将山林点缀得如火如荼。 而在茂密的林间，生活着多达2300多种野生动物。其中最著名的莫过于峨眉山藏酋猴（Tibetan macaques）。这些精灵古怪、灵气十足的野生猴群，早已成为峨眉山旅游的一大亮点。它们不仅不惧怕人类，反而经常在游步道旁向游客“化缘”讨要食物。与猴群的互动虽然充满乐趣，但也提醒着我们必须对野生动物保持敬畏，做到人与自然和谐共处。除了灵猴，这里还栖息着小熊猫、枯叶蝶以及独特的峨眉弹琴蛙，这些珍稀生灵共同构筑了峨眉山生机勃勃的生态画卷。 #峨眉灵猴 #植物王国 除了丰富的动植物资源，峨眉山的独特地质构造同样令人惊叹。经过数亿年的地壳运动，尤其是强烈的造山运动，原本沉睡在海底的二叠纪玄武岩与石灰岩岩层被推向高空，形成了如今陡峭的断崖、深邃的峡谷与险峻的绝壁。唐代大诗人李白曾在诗中惊叹：“蜀国多仙山，峨眉邈难匹”，其险峻与秀美并存的独特地貌，是自然界留给人类最珍贵的馈赠。 #地质奇观 #峨眉天下秀 2. 佛光普照：两千年的宗教传承与普贤道场 峨眉山不仅是一座自然之山，更是一座信仰之山。追溯其宗教历史，峨眉山早期的文化渊源其实与道教息息相关。在先秦及魏晋时期，这里曾被视为道家的洞天福地——“第七洞天”，许多修道之士隐居于此，寻仙问道，炼丹修真。然而，随着公元1世纪佛教自印度传入中国，峨眉山的命运迎来了深刻的转折。相传东汉时期，佛教在峨眉山开始生根发芽，并在此建成了中国最早的佛教寺庙之一——普光殿（今万年寺前身）。 #佛教名山 #信仰之旅 到了晋代，高僧慧持在此建寺弘法，进一步奠定了峨眉山作为佛教圣地的基础。而真正让峨眉山名扬天下的，是其作为“普贤菩萨道场”的确立。普贤菩萨在佛教中代表着“大行”（即伟大的实践与行动力），与五台山文殊菩萨的“大智”、普陀山观音菩萨的“大悲”、九华山地藏菩萨的“大愿”共同构成了中国佛教的四大核心精神。据佛经与民间传说记载，普贤菩萨常骑六牙白象，在此山中示现，度化众生。因此，唐宋时期，峨眉山的佛教文化发展到了鼎盛阶段，全山上下寺庙林立，僧侣众多，香火鼎盛，吸引了无数帝王将相与文人墨客前来朝拜。 #普贤菩萨 #佛教历史 明清两代，峨眉山的佛教建筑规模更是达到了巅峰。历史上，这里曾有过上百座规模宏大的寺庙，如今虽然岁月更迭、朝代兴替，但仍有约30座古刹保存完好。漫步在古木参天的山道上，钟磬之声不绝于耳，诵经之音在林间回荡。每一座寺庙、每一尊佛像、每一块历经风雨的碑刻，都在无声地诉说着那些关于信仰、慈悲与坚持的动人故事。峨眉山不仅是中国佛教徒心中的圣地，也吸引着全球各地的朝圣者与文化学者前来礼佛祈福，感受那份超脱尘世的宁静与洗礼。 #佛教文化 #朝圣者 3. 古刹探幽：峨眉山的寺庙建筑与人文景观 峨眉山的寺庙建筑依山就势，巧妙地将自然景观与宗教文化融为一体，展现了中国古代建筑艺术的极高造诣。从山脚到山顶，几座标志性寺庙如同明珠般串联起整条朝圣之路。 #古建筑 #寺庙文化 报国寺（Baoguo Temple）：位于峨眉山麓，是游览峨眉山的起点，也是全山最大的一座寺庙。报国寺始建于明代，清代康熙皇帝曾亲笔御题“报国寺”匾额。寺内古木掩映，殿宇宏伟，不仅是峨眉山佛教协会的所在地，更是信徒与游客进入佛国净土的第一道山门。在这里，你可以听到悠远的晨钟暮鼓，观赏到珍贵的明代彩釉瓷佛与高耸的紫铜华严塔，感受到浓厚的佛教氛围。 #报国寺 清音阁（Qingyin Pavilion）：向上攀登，便来到了风景如画的清音阁。这里被称为峨眉山的第一胜景。清音阁建在险峻的牛心岭下，两条清澈的溪水——黑龙江与白龙江在此交汇，水流激荡，拍打着溪中状如牛心的巨石，发出的声音如同古琴奏鸣，故名“双桥清音”。在这里，山水相依，亭台楼阁与自然风光完美契合，是无数文人墨客流连忘返的吟咏之地。 #清音阁 #自然山水 万年寺（Wannian Temple）：万年寺是峨眉山历史最悠久的古刹之一。其最大的镇寺之宝，是一尊铸造于北宋时期的普贤菩萨骑六牙白象铜像。这尊铜像重达62吨，造型精美，比例匀称，工艺极其高超，被视为中国古代铸造艺术的巅峰之作。万年寺内的无梁砖殿也是一大建筑奇观，整座大殿受印度建筑风格启发，完全由砖块砌筑穹窿顶，未使用一根木柱，历经明清以来的多次强烈地震依然安然无恙，堪称中国建筑史上的奇迹。 #万年寺 #古代铸造艺术 洗象池与九老洞：继续向高海拔进发，会经过充满神秘色彩的九老洞与洗象池。相传洗象池是普贤菩萨骑象经过时，让白象在此池中沐浴洗心的地方。每当皓月当空，清辉照耀池水，“象池夜月”便成了峨眉山极具诗意的经典景观。而九老洞则是峨眉山最大的天然溶洞，传说曾有九位仙人在此修道，洞内深邃莫测，常有蝙蝠栖息，给人以无限遐想。 金顶（Golden Summit）：位于海拔3077米的金顶，是每一位峨眉山攀登者心中的终极目标。这里有金碧辉煌的华藏寺，以及高达48米、重达600吨的十方普贤金像。这尊雄伟的金像不仅是现代青铜雕塑的杰作，更是峨眉山信仰的最高象征。当晨曦的阳光洒在这尊巨大的金像上，折射出耀眼夺目的光芒，仿佛佛光普照人间。 #峨眉金顶 #十方普贤 在金顶，游客还可以欣赏到峨眉山名扬天下的“四大奇观”——日出、云海、佛光与圣灯。当浩瀚的云海在脚下如波涛般翻腾，一轮红日从云层中喷薄而出，那一刻的壮阔足以让人热泪盈眶。而当阳光从背后照射过来，在云雾上形成彩色的光环，将人的身影投射其中，这便是神奇的“峨眉佛光”。古人认为这是菩萨显灵，实则是阳光与云雾水滴相互作用的物理光学现象，但这丝毫不影响它带给人们的震撼与敬畏。置身金顶，远处的贡嘎雪山若隐若现，顿生一种“会当凌绝顶，一览众山小”的豪情，足以让人忘记尘世的所有烦恼。 #日出云海 #峨眉佛光 4. 峨眉武术与茶文化：融于山水的生活哲学 除了深邃的宗教与绝美的自然，峨眉山还孕育了独特的武术与茶文化，构成了这座仙山独有的人文生活哲学。 #峨眉武术 #中国功夫 **峨眉武术（Emei Wushu）**与少林、武当并称为中国三大武术流派。它起源于先秦，成型于南宋，深受峨眉山佛教与道教思想的双重影响。峨眉武术讲究“刚柔并济、内外兼修”，动作如灵猴般敏捷，发力如猛虎般刚烈，既有道家的导引吐纳之术，又有佛家的禅定修心之法。金庸先生的武侠小说中，“峨眉派”女侠们的飒爽英姿更是让峨眉武术名扬海内外。如今，许多武术爱好者慕名而来，在这深山古刹中寻访高人，体验中国传统武术的博大精深与修身养性的智慧。 此外，峨眉山的茶文化同样源远流长。高海拔的云雾环境与肥沃的土壤，为茶叶的生长提供了得天独厚的条件。早在唐代，峨眉山的茶叶便被列为贡茶，白居易等大文豪都曾留下品茗的佳句。如今的“峨眉雪芽”与“竹叶青”更是闻名遐迩的高山名茶。在长达数十公里、近六万级石阶的攀登途中，若是疲惫了，找一处临崖的茶社，泡上一杯清香四溢的峨眉绿茶，看着杯中茶叶如刀剑般挺立，品味着茶汤中的甘甜与山林间的清气，这无疑是对疲惫身心最好的慰藉。茶禅一味，在这座仙山中得到了最完美的诠释。 #峨眉茶文化 #竹叶青 #峨眉雪芽 5. 现代旅游与可持续发展：在传承中前行 随着现代旅游业的高速发展，峨眉山早已成为中国乃至世界最受欢迎的旅游目的地之一。作为一个国家5A级旅游景区，峨眉山在旅游基础设施建设上投入了巨大精力。如今，游客的游览方式变得更加丰富多元：你既可以选择传统的徒步登山路线，沿着古人留下的石阶，历经两到三天的跋涉，体验“朝圣”的艰辛与虔诚；也可以乘坐便捷的环保观光车穿越山林，再换乘现代化的高山大索道，只需几分钟便能轻松穿云破雾直达金顶。这种多样化的游览方式，极大地便利了不同年龄与体能的游客，让更多人有机会一睹金顶的绝世风光。 #现代旅游 #索道观光 然而，庞大的游客数量也给峨眉山的生态环境保护带来了巨大的挑战。如何在开发旅游的同时，保护好这片脆弱的高山生态系统与珍贵的文化遗产，成为了重中之重。为此，当地管理部门采取了一系列严格的可持续发展措施。从限制法定节假日的单日游客接待量，到全山推行“无痕山林”与垃圾分类的环保理念；从设立自然保护区对珍稀动植物进行严密监控与繁育保护，到运用数字化技术对古建筑、碑刻进行三维扫描与建档修缮，每一个细节都体现了对自然法则的敬畏与对历史遗产的尊重。峨眉山不仅仅是属于我们这一代人的财富，更是需要我们用心守护、传承给子孙后代的无价瑰宝。 #生态保护 #可持续旅游 #遗产保护 结语：一场涤荡心灵的旅程 李白曾留下“峨眉山月半轮秋，影入平羌江水流”的千古绝唱，苏东坡也曾对这座家乡的名山魂牵梦绕。峨眉山，就像是一部厚重的史书，需要你用双脚去丈量它的厚度，用心灵去阅读它的深邃。 从山麓报国寺的郁郁葱葱，到金顶之上的云海佛光；从清音阁的潺潺流水，到万年寺的晨钟暮鼓。这里有自然造化鬼斧神工的神奇，有历史岁月大浪淘沙的沉淀，更有超越世俗、抚慰人心的信仰力量。无论你是为了追寻那绚丽震撼的日出，还是为了探访那神秘悠远的佛国净土，亦或是仅仅想在喧嚣的都市生活中寻找一片宁静的避风港，峨眉山都会以它那博大的胸怀与无尽的秀美，为你留下此生难忘的印记。 旅行的意义，往往不在于到达终点，而在于沿途的风景与心境的蜕变。下一次规划旅行时，不妨将目光投向四川这片神奇的土地，亲自踏上那条通往云端的石阶，去揭开峨眉山那层神秘而美丽的面纱，体验一场真正意义上涤荡心灵的旅程。 #旅行目的地 #探秘峨眉山 #人文之旅 #心灵洗礼 #MountEmei #Buddhism #Sichuan #UNESCO #Nature #China
ようこそ。日本の美しき歴史と文化の旅へ。 松本城：漆黒の天守が語る戦国浪漫 ―― 歴史の深淵と建築美を解き明かす 私たちは、旅の中で何に出会うのだろうか。単に新しい景色を目にすることだけが旅の目的ではない。そこに積み重ねられた「時間」の層をめくり、かつてその地で生きた人々の息遣いや、彼らが抱いた執念、そして美意識に触れることこそが、旅の真髄であると私は信じている。 信濃の国、現在の長野県松本市。北アルプスの雄大な山並みを遥かに望むその平野に、世界を魅了してやまない漆黒の城郭が佇んでいる。国宝「松本城」。美しき深黒の衣をまとった天守群は、戦国の動乱期から泰平の江戸時代への過渡期を生き抜き、��代にその姿を留める奇跡の遺構である。今回は、一人の歴史研究者、そして旅人としての視点から、この松本城が秘める歴史の深淵、建築に込められた精神性、そして人々の情熱の軌跡を、深く、詩的に紐解いていきたい。 日本の城郭文化が到達した最高峰の一つを、今ここに探訪しよう。一、 深志から松本へ ―― 激動の戦国絵巻 松本城の歴史の始まりは、遥か中世の室町時代末期、永正年間（1504〜1520年）にまで遡る。当時、信濃国の守護職であった小笠原氏（府中小笠原氏）が、本拠地である林城を守護するための支城として、この筑摩野の地に「深志城（ふかしじょう）」を築いたのが、その産声であった。この時期の城はまだ、土塁と空堀に囲まれた小規模な砦に過ぎなかったと考えられている。 しかし、戦国の嵐はこの地を容赦なく巻き込んでいく。天文年間、甲斐国から「甲斐の虎」と恐れられた武田信玄（武田晴信）による苛烈な信濃侵攻が開始された。1550年8月27日（天文19年7月15日）、圧倒的な武田軍の攻勢の前に、本城である林城および支城の深志城はあえなく落城。信濃守護・小笠原長��は一族とともに居城を追われ、流浪の身となった（『高白斎記』）。 支配者となった武田氏は、防備上、林城を徹底的に破却。一方で平地に位置する深志城を拠点として重視し、名将・馬場信春を城代として配置した。武田氏はここを信濃支配の兵站基地とし、松本盆地を完全に掌握。その後、北信濃の村上義清や、越後国の長尾景虎（のちの上杉謙信）との間で繰り広げられた川中島の戦いをはじめとする熾烈な抗争のなかで、信濃一帯の領国化を進めていく。 武田氏の栄華もやがて潰える。1582年（天正10年）、織田信長による甲州征伐によって武田氏が滅亡すると、深志城代の馬場昌房から織田信長の弟である織田長益へ城が明け渡された。信長は一時、木曾義昌にこの地を安堵する。しかし同年の「本能寺の変」によって天下の形勢は再び混沌へと陥った。武田の旧領を巡る「天正壬午の乱」が勃発するなか、越後の上杉景勝の後援を受け、さらに小笠原氏の旧臣たちの助力を得た小笠原洞雪斎が一時的に城を奪還する。 しかし、歴史の針は小笠原氏の嫡流へと傾く。徳川家康の庇護下に入った小笠原貞慶が旧領を奇跡的に回復したのである。貞慶は、自らの不屈の意志を示すかのように、長年親しまれた「深志城」の名を「松本城」へと改名した。これこそが、現代に続く名城の誕生の瞬間であった。 1590年（天正18年）、豊臣秀吉による小田原征伐が完了すると、天下の勢力図は大きく書き換えられた。家康の関東移封に伴い、松本城主であった小笠原秀政も下総国古河へと移される。代わって松本に入封したのが、秀吉の直臣となった石川数正であった。 数正はかつて徳川家康の天下取りを支えた重臣でありながら、突如として徳川家を出奔し、秀吉の陣営へと走った謎多き人物である。数正とその子・康長は、新たな領主として松本城の近代化に着手した。彼らが手掛けたのが、現在私たちが目にする五重六階の壮大な天守群の造営であり、城郭および機能的な城下町の徹底的な整備であった。数正がなぜこれほどまでに頑強で、かつ威圧的な天守を築いたのか。そこには、関東を領有し不気味な存在感を放ち続ける旧主・徳川家康に対する、豊臣政権の最前線としての強烈な牽制と、防衛への執念があったと考えられている。 ���戸幕府が創始され、泰平の世が訪れると、石川康長は大久保長安事件に連座して改易の憂き目に遭う。皮肉にも、かつての城主であった小笠原秀政が再び松本城へと返り咲いた。大坂の陣を経て、松本藩は松平康長や水野家などの領地となり、最終的には戸田松平家が代々居城としてこの地を治めることとなった。 しかし、泰平の裏には常に民の困窮があった。1686年（貞享3年）、松本藩を揺るがす未曾有の農民一揆「貞享騒動（加助騒動）」が勃発する。度重なる不作に加え、藩による過酷な年貢の取り立てに喘ぐ農民たちを救うため、庄屋の多田加助とその同志たちは、己の命を賭して郡奉行へ直訴に踏み切った。この訴えに呼応した農民は万余に膨れ上がり、松本城を取り囲む事態へと発展した。藩側は一時的に暴動を沈静化させるため、加助らの要求を受け入れる「覚え書き」を渡したが、騒動が収まるとすぐさまそれを反故にした。翌年、加助をはじめその同志、さらにはその年若い子弟に至るまで計28名が、冷酷に処刑されたのである。 1727年（享保12年）には、政治の中心であった本丸御殿が失火により焼失。��後、再建されることはなく、藩の政務は二の丸御殿へと移された。こうして、中世の砦から始まった松本城は、血塗られた戦国と、民の涙に濡れた江戸期を経て、近代という激動の時代へと引き継がれていく。二、 漆黒の構造美 ―― 現存唯一の平城天守が語る建築思想 松本城を訪れた者がまず圧倒されるのは、その外観の特異な美しさであろう。五重六階の大天守を中心とし、乾小天守、渡櫓、辰巳附櫓、月見櫓が一体となったその姿は、「複合連結式天守」と呼ばれる極めて複雑で有機的な構造を持っている。 松本城は、現存12天守のなかで唯一の「平城（ひらじろ）」である。平地の中にぽつりと佇むからこそ、その防御陣地としての縄張り（設計）には、極限の知恵が絞られた。本丸、二の丸、三の丸はほぼ方形に整地され、南西に天守を配した本丸を、北側が欠けた凹型の二の丸が囲み、さらにその外側を三の丸が四方から囲む。梯郭式と輪郭式を巧みに融合させたこの縄張りは、すべて豊かな水を湛えた三重の水堀によって厳重に隔てられている。 大天守の意匠と工学的謎 大天守の外壁を覆うのは、初重から最上重まで張り巡らされた「黒漆塗の下見板」である。白漆喰の壁と黒漆のコントラストは、まるで水面に浮かぶ一羽の美しい一角獣のごとき威厳を放つ。1950年の大修理以前は墨が用いられていたと考えられていたが、解体時に漆の痕跡が発見されたことで、現在は年に一度、熟練の職人の手によって黒漆が塗り直され、その艶やかな深黒が維持されている。 この大天守は、建築史において「望楼型天守」から「層塔型天守」へと移行する過渡期的な特徴を色濃く残している。2重目の屋根の内部には、天守台のわずかな歪みを調整するために入母屋（大屋根）構造を内包しているが、外見上は強引に寄棟を形成している。この強引な設計のため、各重の屋根の隅はわずかに異なる方向を向いており、これが松本城独自の複雑な陰影を生み出している。 この構造的歪みの結果として生まれたのが、3階部分にある「窓のない特殊な空間」である。天井が低く、外からは一切その存在が確認できないこの階は、パンフレットなどでは「秘密の階」と情緒的に紹介されているが、実際には大屋根構造の余剰スペース��屋根裏）を有効活用した空間である。しかし、戦時には武者だまりや武器庫として機能したであろうこの暗がりは、訪れる者に中世の隠微な気配を感じさせる。 2025年、年輪が明かした新たな真実 長年、松本城大天守の建造年を巡っては、学術的に激しい論争が繰り広げられてきた。 主な説としては、石川数正・康長父子が入封した直後の「天正19年（1591年）説」、本格的な工事が開始されたとする「文禄3年（1594年）説」、完成を見たとする「慶長2年（1597年）説」、そして大坂の陣前後に小笠原秀政によって建てられたとする「慶長20年 #japan #travel #history #culture #nature
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Évora: A Cidade Museu e a Capela dos Ossos – O Coração de Pedra e Luz do Alentejo Dizer que Portugal é um país de encantos escondidos é quase um lugar-comum, mas existem lugares onde o tempo parece ter decidido desacelerar, permitindo que cada época histórica deixasse a sua assinatura esculpida na pedra. Évora é, sem margem para dúvidas, o expoente máximo desta comunhão entre o passado e o presente. Conhecida carinhosamente como a capital do Alentejo, esta cidade-museu ergue-se majestosamente na planície, convidando-nos a uma verdadeira jornada de descoberta e introspeção. Neste artigo, convido-vos a calçar sapatos confortáveis e a acompanhar-me numa exploração profunda pelos labirintos de uma das cidades mais fascinantes do sul de #Europa. Vamos desvendar os segredos de um território que respira eternidade, onde a herança megalítica, a sumptuosidade romana, a herança islâmica e o fervor medieval se cruzam a cada esquina. Preparem-se para uma imersão completa na alma eborense.Uma Geografia de Horizontes Infinitos e Fronteiras Históricas Para compreendermos a grandiosidade de Évora, precisamos primeiro olhar para o mapa e perceber a escala da sua presença física e humana. Integrada na encantadora região do Alentejo (NUT II) e, de forma mais circunscrita, na sub-região do Alentejo Central (NUT III), Évora assume-se como o centro urbano de referência de toda esta vasta planície. Em 2021, a cidade contava com 40 455 habitantes, uma comunidade que tem o privilégio diário de habitar um cenário que parece saído de uma pintura histórica. [Arraiolos] (Norte) | [Montemor-o-Novo] -- [ÉVORA] -- [Estremoz / Redondo] (Leste) | [Portel] (Sul)Mas Évora não é apenas a sua malha urbana mais densa. Ela é a sede de um município homónimo que se destaca como o quinto mais extenso de todo o território nacional português. São impressionantes 1 307,08 km² de área, um território vasto e diversificado que serve de lar a 53 591 pessoas (segundo os dados censitários de 2021), distribuídas harmoniosamente por 12 freguesias. Esta vastidão territorial faz com que o município de Évora estabeleça fronteiras com uma constelação de outras terras alentejanas cheias de caráter. A norte, os limites tocam o município de Arraiolos, famoso pelas suas tapeçarias; a nordeste, a rota cruza-se com Estremoz; a leste, as terras confinam com o Redondo; a sueste, aproximamo-nos das águas e das planícies de Reguengos de Monsaraz; a sul, o horizonte estende-se até Portel; a sudoeste, o limite faz-se com Viana do Alentejo; e, finalmente, a oeste, o território abraça Montemor-o-Novo. Esta rede de vizinhanças desenha um mapa de transições suaves, onde a planície dourada é a grande constante. Esta maravilhosa #viagem pelo Alentejo começa, assim, com a consciência de estarmos num território imenso, onde a terra e o céu se encontram num abraço sem fim.O Prestígio de uma Cidade-Museu sob a Égide da UNESCO Não é por acaso que Évora ostenta o título de "Cidade-Museu". O seu centro histórico, extraordinariamente bem-preservado, constitui um dos conjuntos monumentais mais ricos, densos e diversificados de #Portugal. Caminhar por estas ruas é o equivalente a folhear um tratado de história da arte e da arquitetura ao vivo, onde as diferentes camadas do tempo não se anularam, mas sim sobrepuseram em perfeita harmonia. +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | ÉVORA: LINHA DO TEMPO | | | | [Megalitismo] -> [Romano] -> [Visigodo/Mouro] -> [Gótico] | | (>5000 anos) (Teixos) (Alcácer/Mesquita) (Sé/Muralha)| +-------------------------------------------------------------+Este valor excecional e universal foi formalmente reconhecido além-fronteiras no ano de 1986, quando o centro histórico de Évora foi solenemente declarado Património Mundial pela UNESCO. Esta distinção internacional veio coroar o esforço de preservação de uma urbe que soube manter intacta a sua traça antiga, os seus alinhamentos medievais, as suas muralhas protetoras e o casario caiado de branco, debruado com o amarelo-ouro tradicional que reflete a luz intensa do sol alentejano. Évora orgulha-se também de ser a única cidade portuguesa a integrar a prestigiada Rede de Cidades Europeias mais Antigas, um clube restrito de centros urbanos que partilham uma longevidade histórica sem paralelo no continente europeu.As Raízes Profundas: Mais de Cinco Milénios de Ocupação A nossa viagem no tempo começa muito antes de existirem reis, imperadores ou generais. A região de Évora e a sua envolvente geográfica imediata guardam vestígios de uma presença humana contínua que recua mais de cinco milénios. O Alentejo Central é uma das áreas mais ricas em monumentos megalíticos da Península Ibérica, e as imediações da cidade oferecem testemunhos impressionantes dessa espiritualidade e organização social da Pré-História. A curta distância do perímetro urbano, podemos encontrar e maravilhar-nos com monumentos de dimensões colossais, tais como:A monumental Anta do Zambujeiro, um dos maiores dólmenes de corredor da Europa, que nos fala de rituais fúnebres e de uma engenharia ancestral surpreendente. O místico Cromeleque dos Almendres, um recinto megalítico composto por dezenas de monólitos dispostos em círculos concêntricos, que evoca mistérios astronómicos e celebrações sagradas ligadas à #nature e aos ciclos da terra.Naquela época recuada, vários povoados neolíticos desenvolveram-se na região. O mais próximo da atual malha urbana situava-se no Alto de São Bento, um miradouro natural que oferece uma vista soberba sobre a planície. Outro ponto de fixação humana de extrema relevância é o chamado Castelo de Giraldo, um povoado fortificado que conheceu uma ocupação praticamente contínua desde o terceiro milénio antes de Cristo até ao primeiro milénio a.C., tendo inclusive registado algumas utilizações esporádicas já durante o período medieval. Apesar de toda esta riqueza arqueológica na periferia, as escavações científicas realizadas até ao momento no coração da atual cidade ainda não conseguiram demonstrar, de forma cabal e factual, se a área urbana propriamente dita de Évora já era habitada antes da chegada definitiva das legiões romanas. Este é um daqueles mistérios que a arqueologia continua a tentar decifrar sob o solo que hoje pisamos.Ebora: A Época de Ouro sob o Império Romano A chegada dos romanos transformou radicalmente o destino deste território, fundando as bases da cidade que hoje conhecemos. No entanto, antes de olharmos para os factos históricos consolidados, vale a pena mergulhar nas lendas que alimentaram o imaginário local durante séculos. [Origem do Nome] Celta Antigo: "Ebora" / "Ebura" (Genitivo plural de "Eburos" - Teixo) Significado: "Dos Teixos" Paralelo Histórico: York, Inglaterra (Eboracum -> "Lugar dos Teixos")De acordo com uma narrativa popularizada no século XVI pelo prestigiado humanista, arqueólogo e escritor eborense André de Resende (1500–1573), Évora teria servido de quartel-general para as tropas do lendário general romano Sertório. Este líder rebelde, em estreita aliança com os guerreiros lusitanos, teria feito destas terras o seu reduto de resistência contra o poder centralizado e esmagador de Roma. Embora esta lenda acrescente um perfume de romantismo e rebeldia à identidade da cidade, a realidade histórica documentada aponta para caminhos igualmente fascinantes. O que a ciência histórica e a arqueologia confirmam com elevado grau de certeza é que a povoação recebeu de Júlio César ou de Octávio o prestigiado título de Liberalitas Júlia. Mais tarde, sob o consulado ou reinado de Vespasiano, a localidade foi elevada à distinta categoria de município, consolidando o seu papel administrativo e económico na região. A Origem do Nome e as Ligações Celto-Britânicas A própria etimologia do nome "Évora" é uma viagem linguística fascinante. Acredita-se que o termo Ebora derive diretamente do celta antigo ebora ou ebura, que constitui o caso genitivo plural do vocábulo eburos, que significa "teixo" (uma espécie de árvore conífera muito associada à longevidade e à espiritualidade celta). Assim, o nome original da cidade significaria, literalmente, "dos teixos" ou "terra onde abundam os teixos". Esta raiz linguística estabelece uma ponte histórica surpreendente com o norte da Europa. Durante o Império Romano, a atual cidade de York, situada no norte de Inglaterra, era denominada Ebóraco (Eboracum ou Eburacum), um nome que por sua vez derivava do celta antigo Ebora Kon, significando "Lugar dos Teixos". Assim, através desta fantástica etimologia partilhada, a nossa Évora alentejana encontra-se hipoteticamente irmanada com a histórica York britânica através de uma herança botânica e linguística comum. O Legado Monumental de Augusto Foi durante a vigência do imperador Augusto (que governou de 27 a.C. a 14 d.C.) que Évora foi formalmente integrada na Província da Lusitânia. Sob a Pax Romana, a cidade beneficiou de um ambicioso plano de transformações urbanísticas de cariz monumental. Destas intervenções, o Templo Romano de Évora — erguido no ponto mais alto da acrópole e provavelmente dedicado ao culto imperial do próprio Augusto — é o vestígio mais imponente, magnífico e célebre que sobreviveu até aos nossos dias. As suas colunas de capitéis coríntios em mármore de Estremoz e granito erguem-se contra o céu azul, sendo o símbolo máximo da monumentalidade clássica em Portugal. [Templo Romano de Évora] +------------------------------+ | Colunas em Mármore | | e Granito (Culto Imperial) | +------------------------------+ | [Banhos Públicos Romanos] | [Villa da Tourega (Freguesia Tourega)]Mas o legado romano não se esgota no templo. As escavações revelaram também as ruínas de complexos banhos públicos, essenciais para a vida social e higiénica da elite romana. Além disso, a influência romana estendia-se muito para além dos limites da #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Olá, aventureiros e amantes da beleza! Sejam muito bem-vindos ao meu cantinho virtual, onde partilho as minhas paixões por este mundo vasto e maravilhoso. Hoje, levo-vos numa #viagem inesquecível, um mergulho profundo no coração de Portugal, a um lugar que não só cativa a alma, mas que moldou a própria identidade do meu país com a sua grandiosidade e a sua história líquida: o Vale do Douro. Preparem-se para sentir o cheiro da terra molhada, o sabor de um néctar inigualável e a força de um rio que é mais do que água – é vida, é legado. O Berço Dourado: Uma Odisséia Pelas Paisagens Vinhateiras Se há paisagem que me faz sentir um orgulho profundo por ser português, é esta. O Vale do Douro não é apenas uma região; é um testamento vivo da resiliência humana, da sua capacidade de transformar a natureza mais agreste em algo de uma beleza estonteante e produtiva. Imagine um tapete infinito de socalcos, esculpidos com uma precisão quase divina nas encostas íngremes que abraçam o rio. Não são apenas vinhas; são verdadeiras escadarias de esmeralda que sobem em direção ao céu, testemunhas silenciosas de séculos de trabalho árduo e paixão. Este é um lugar onde a paisagem não é estática; ela respira, muda com as estações. No pico do verão, as vinhas exibem um verde vibrante, carregadas de cachos que prometem o vinho do Porto. No outono, transformam-se num caleidoscópio de tons dourados, vermelhos e castanhos, um espetáculo que rouba o fôlego a qualquer um. E no inverno, mesmo despidas, as encostas revelam a sua estrutura rochosa, a sua essência, preparando-se para um novo ciclo de vida. É uma sinfonia visual que se repete ano após ano, sempre com a mesma majestade. A Força da Natureza e a Mão Humana A geografia do Douro é, por si só, uma obra-prima. O rio, um gigante sereno, serpenteia por entre vales profundos e montanhas imponentes, criando um microclima único e propício à viticultura. As encostas são tão íngremes que desafiam a lógica, mas foi precisamente essa inclinação que forçou gerações de homens e mulheres a desenvolverem técnicas agrícolas que hoje nos parecem quase míticas. Os socalcos, ou terraços, são a solução engenhosa para cultivar em terrenos tão adversos. Construídos pedra a pedra, sem o auxílio de máquinas modernas durante a maior parte da sua existência, eles são mais do que meras estruturas; são monumentos à perseverança e ao engenho humano. Passear por entre estas vinhas é sentir a história de Portugal a cada passo. É ver a arquitetura da terra, a forma como o homem se adaptou e moldou o ambiente. É uma lição de respeito pela #nature e pela capacidade de coexistência. A sensação de estar ali, no meio de tanto esplendor, com o vento a sussurrar histórias antigas pelas folhas das videiras, é indescritível. Sinto-me pequeno perante tanta grandiosidade, mas ao mesmo tempo parte de algo intemporal. Um Legado de Séculos: A #história Que Flui nas Veias do Douro A história do Douro é tão rica e complexa quanto os seus vinhos. Não se trata apenas de uma história de produção vinícola; é a história de um povo, de uma região que foi palco de transformações profundas e de lutas pela sua identidade e reconhecimento. A presença da vinha no Douro é ancestral, remontando a tempos imemoriais. Há indícios de que já os Romanos, com o seu génio para a engenharia e a agricultura, cultivavam a vinha nestas encostas. Imagino os legionários, talvez depois de uma batalha, a refrescarem-se com o vinho local, alheios ao império que viria a ser construído sobre aquelas mesmas terras. Mas foi a partir do século XVII que o Douro começou a forjar a sua verdadeira lenda, com o advento de um vinho que viria a conquistar o mundo: o Vinho do Porto. O Nascimento do Néctar Dourado: O Vinho do Porto A necessidade de transportar o vinho por longas distâncias, especialmente para a Inglaterra, levou à descoberta e aperfeiçoamento da técnica de fortificação. Adicionar aguardente vínica durante a fermentação não só estabilizava o vinho, tornando-o mais resistente às viagens, como também lhe conferia as suas características únicas de doçura e longevidade. Nascia assim o Vinho do Porto, um embaixador líquido de Portugal para o mundo. Para garantir a qualidade e a autenticidade deste vinho precioso, foi criada, em 1756, a Companhia Geral da Agricultura das Vinhas do Alto Douro. Esta instituição, pioneira no seu tempo, tinha como missão delimitar a região de produção do Vinho do Porto, tornando o Douro a primeira região vinícola demarcada e regulamentada do mundo. Pensem bem nisto: em pleno século XVIII, quando muitas nações ainda estavam a definir as suas fronteiras, Portugal já estava a proteger a sua joia vinícola com uma clareza e visão impressionantes. É um feito de #architecture legal e cultural que merece todo o nosso respeito e admiração. Esta demarcação não foi apenas um ato administrativo; foi um reconhecimento da identidade única do Douro, da sua capacidade de produzir algo que mais nenhuma outra região conseguia replicar. Foi uma afirmação da qualidade, da tradição e do terroir, muito antes de estes conceitos se tornarem moda na indústria vinícola global. Os Barcos Rabelos e a Rota do Vinho Durante séculos, o transporte do Vinho do Porto desde as quintas do Alto Douro até às caves de Vila Nova de Gaia, onde envelhecia, era feito nos icónicos barcos rabelos. Estas embarcações de fundo chato e vela quadrada, manejadas com mestria pelos destemidos rabelistas, eram a espinha dorsal da economia duriense. Descer o rio Douro, com as suas correntes traiçoeiras e rochas escondidas, era uma aventura arriscada, uma prova de coragem e perícia. Hoje, estes barcos, embora já não transportem pipas de vinho, são um símbolo vivo da #cultura e da história da região, adornando as margens do rio em Gaia e no Porto, e lembrando-nos dos tempos em que o Douro era uma via de comunicação vital. A chegada do caminho de ferro e, mais tarde, das estradas, revolucionou o transporte, tornando-o mais seguro e eficiente. Mas a imagem dos rabelos, com as suas pipas empilhadas, permanece gravada na memória coletiva e no imaginário de quem visita o Douro. É uma imagem que evoca um tempo de esforço, mas também de uma ligação profunda entre o homem, o rio e o vinho. A Alma do Douro: Cultura, Sabores e Sentimentos Visitar o Douro é uma experiência que vai muito além da degustação de vinhos. É uma imersão na alma de um povo, na sua forma de viver, na sua gastronomia e nas suas tradições. A #cultura duriense é moldada pelo rio, pela vinha e pelo ritmo das estações. As Quintas e o Espírito de Hospitalidade As quintas do Douro são o coração da região. Muitas delas são centenárias, com as suas casas senhoriais a pontuarem a paisagem, rodeadas por vinhedos que se estendem até onde a vista alcança. Algumas destas quintas, outrora centros de produção e vida rural, abriram as suas portas aos visitantes, oferecendo alojamento, experiências de vindima e, claro, provas de vinho. É uma oportunidade única para viver o Douro de perto, para sentir a hospitalidade genuína dos seus habitantes e para compreender a paixão que dedicam à sua terra e aos seus vinhos. Recordo-me de uma vez, numa dessas quintas, de ter participado na pisa da uva. Descalço, ao ritmo da música tradicional, sentindo o sumo fresco a envolver os meus pés, foi uma experiência visceral, quase mística. É ali que se sente a ligação profunda com a terra, com o trabalho ancestral, com a celebração da colheita. Não é apenas uma atividade turística; é uma partilha de um ritual que se repete há séculos. A Gastronomia Duriense: Um Festim para os Sentidos E que seria de uma visita ao Douro sem os seus sabores? A gastronomia da região é robusta, autêntica e profundamente ligada aos produtos da terra. Desde o cabrito assado no forno a lenha, tenro e aromático, aos enchidos fumados que aquecem a alma, passando pelo bacalhau com broa, cada prato é um convite a celebrar a vida. E, claro, tudo harmonizado com os maravilhosos vinhos do Douro – não apenas o Porto, mas também os vinhos de mesa tintos e brancos, que nos últimos anos têm conquistado prémios internacionais e a admiração de críticos em todo o mundo. Sentar-me numa esplanada à beira-rio, com um prato de alheiras e um copo de Douro tinto, observando o sol a pôr-se sobre os socalcos, é um dos meus prazeres favoritos. É uma experiência que nutre não só o corpo, mas também o espírito. O Douro no Século XXI: Património Mundial e Destino de Sonho Em 2001, a UNESCO reconheceu a excecionalidade do Vale do Douro, classificando-o como Património Mundial da Humanidade. Este reconhecimento não foi apenas um selo de aprovação; foi a coroação de séculos de esforço, de um trabalho que moldou uma paisagem cultural viva e em constante evolução. É a prova de que a beleza e a importância desta região transcendem fronteiras, tornando-a um tesouro para toda a #Europa e para o mundo. Hoje, o Douro é um destino turístico de excelência, atraindo visitantes de todos os cantos do planeta. Sejam amantes de vinho, aficionados por história, entusiastas da natureza ou simplesmente viajantes em busca de beleza e tranquilidade, o Douro tem algo para oferecer a todos. Há cruzeiros no rio, que permitem uma perspetiva única da paisagem; há passeios de comboio, que serpenteiam por entre as vinhas; há percursos pedestres e de bicicleta para os mais aventureiros; e, claro, há as inúmeras quintas e adegas para visitar, onde se pode aprender sobre o processo de vinificação e degustar os néctares da região. Um Apelo à Alma Viajante Se ainda não conhecem o Douro, convido-vos a fazê-lo. Deixem-se envolver pela sua magia, pela sua beleza avassaladora e pela calorosa hospitalidade do seu povo. Permitam-se perder nos seus socalcos, sentir o sol na pele e o sabor do vinho na boca. É uma experiência que vos ficará gravada na memória e no coração. Para mim, cada visita ao Douro é um regresso às minhas raízes, uma renovação da minha ligação com a terra e com a história do meu #Portugal. É um lugar que me lembra a força da natureza, a resiliência do espírito humano e a beleza que pode surgir da mais árdua das tarefas. O Vale do Douro não é apenas um destino; é uma emoção, um legado, uma promessa de beleza infindável. E é, sem dúvida, um dos lugares mais belos do mundo. Até à próxima aventura! Com carinho, Tiago Silva #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
ようこそ。日本の美しき歴史と文化の旅へ。 伏見稲荷大社：千本鳥居が導く、悠久の神秘と魂の道標 日本の古都、京都。その東南に位置する深草の地に、霊峰稲荷山を抱き、朱色の鳥居が無限に連なる壮麗な景観で、訪れる者の心を捉えて離さない聖地があります。それは、全国津々浦々に鎮座する稲荷神社の総本宮、伏見稲荷大社。単なる観光名所としての一面を超え、この場所は日本の信仰の深淵、歴史の重層、そして自然との共生を静かに物語る、生きた文化遺産と言えるでしょう。私、田中ゆみは、この地を訪れるたびに、古の人々の祈り、そして神と人との織りなす壮大な物語に心を馳せます。 信仰の源流と悠久の歴史：稲荷山に宿る神��の息吹 伏見稲荷大社は、京都市伏見区深草薮之内町に鎮座し、古くは『延喜式』に「名神大社」として名を連ね、また二十二社の「上七社」の一角を占めるなど、その格式の高さは古来より揺るぎないものでした。かつては官幣大社として国家の崇敬を集め、現在は単立神社として、独自の歩みを続けています。旧称は「稲荷神社」でしたが、1946年（昭和21年）に現在の「伏見稲荷大社」へと改称され、その名は今や世界に響き渡っています。 この聖地の核を成すのは、稲荷山の麓に厳かに佇む本殿と、山そのものが神域とされる霊峰稲荷山です。京都盆地の東山三十六峰の最南端に位置するこの霊峰は、その三つの峰を神そのものとして崇拝したことが、稲荷信仰の揺るがぬ源流とされています。初めは、人々の暮らしの根幹を支える「農耕の神」として厚く祀られましたが、時代の移ろいとともに、その神徳は「殖産興業」、すなわち産業の発展や経済活動全般を司る神へと広がり、今日に至るまで、あらゆる階層の人々から篤い信仰を集めてきました。 神が稲荷山に降臨したという神秘的な縁起に由来し、毎年2月��初午の日は、古来より多くの参拝者で賑わいます。この日、山は人々の熱気に包まれ、祈りの声がこだまします。清少納言がその優雅な筆致で『枕草子』に稲荷詣の様子を記したのをはじめ、『蜻蛉日記』や『今昔物語集』といった平安期の古典文学にもしばしば登場することからも、当時の貴族社会における稲荷信仰の浸透ぶりが窺い知れます。 平安時代に入り、空海が東寺（教王護国寺）を造営するに際し、稲荷大神がその鎮守神となると、真言密教との結びつきを深め、その信仰は飛躍的に拡大しました。これにより、稲荷大神の神位は次第に高められ、ついに『延喜式』の名神大社に列せられる栄誉を賜り、天慶5年（942年）には神階の最高位である正一位を得るに至ります。この間、延喜8年（908年）には左大臣藤原時平が三箇社を修営するなど、時の権力者たちもその造営や修造に深く関与しました。源頼朝や足利義教といった武将たちも社殿の再建や修復に尽力しましたが、応仁の乱の兵火によって、惜しくもそのすべてが焼失してしまいます。しかし、信仰の灯は消えることなく、乱後には社僧たちによる「勧進」活動のもとで再建が始まり、明応8年（1499年）にはついに遷宮を迎えました。近世に至るまで、これら勧進僧たちは稲荷信仰の普及や「稲荷講」の結成に大きく関与し、その信仰を庶民の間に深く根付かせる上で決定的な役割を果たしたのです。 明治政府による神仏分離令は、伏見稲荷大社にも大きな変革をもたらしました。本願所をはじめ、境内にあった仏堂はすべて廃寺となりましたが、この転換期こそが、現在の伏見稲荷大社を特徴づける象徴的な景観を生み出す契機となりました。すなわち、崇敬者たちによる朱色の「鳥居の奉納」や、稲荷山中に無数に建立された私的な「お塚」の顕著な増加です。これらは、神仏分離によって失われた仏教的な要素に代わり、純粋な稲荷信仰の形として、個人の篤い信仰心を可視化する新たな表現となり、今日まで続く伏見稲荷大社ならではの神秘的な風景を創り上げています。 古くからの東寺との深い関係は、現在も「稲荷祭」の最終日に脈々と受け継がれています。この日、東寺の僧侶たちが東門（慶賀門）の前に供物を供え、還幸する下社の神輿に読経を捧げる儀式は、両社寺が辿った数世紀にわたる歴史と、信仰を通じた絆の証として、現代にその姿を伝えています。#歴史 祭神：豊穣と繁栄を司る五柱の神々 伏見稲荷大社に祀られる祭神は、以下の五柱の神々です。これらの神々は、稲荷大神が持つ広大な神徳が、それぞれの側面に応じて神名化されたものとされています。まさに、人々の多岐にわたる願いに応える、包括的な神の姿を映し出していると言えるでしょう。 主祭神である「宇迦之御魂大神（うかのみたまのおおかみ）」は中央の「下社」に、その広大な神威を以て鎮座されています。「佐田彦大神（さたひこのおおかみ）」は北に位置する「中社」に、そして「大宮能売大神（おおみやのめのおおかみ）」は南の「上社」に祀られ、それぞれが稲荷山の三つの峰に対応するかのようです。さらに、明応8年（1499年）の遷宮の際に本殿に合祀された左右の摂社に祀られる「田中大神（たなかのおおかみ）」と「四大神（しのおおかみ）」が加わり、これら五柱の神々が、一つの社殿に共に祀られる「一宇相殿」という形式で、その神威を一体として発揮されています。宇迦之御魂大神（うかのみたまのおおかみ） - 下社（中央座） その名は「穀物・食物の霊」を意味し、稲荷信仰の根幹を成す、五穀豊穣を司る中心的な神です。佐田彦大神（さたひこのおおかみ） - 中社（北座） 道開きの神、または土地の神としての性格も持ち合わせるとされ、人々の進むべき道を示し、導く神徳を有すると考えられています。大宮能売大神（おおみやのめのおおかみ） - 上社（南座） 「大宮の女神」を意味し、芸能や技芸の神、また福徳を授ける神として信仰を集めています。田中大神（たなかのおおかみ） - 下社摂社（最北座） その名の通り、「田」に深く関わる神とされ、農業生産の守護神としての性格が濃厚です。四大神（しのおおかみ） - 中社摂社（最南座） その神格には諸説ありますが、後述の通り、穀物や四季と関連する神として解釈されています。元来、稲荷神は「五穀豊穣」を司る神として、人々が生きる上で最も基盤となる食の恵みをもたらす存在でした。しかし、時代が下り、社会が複雑化するにつれて、その神徳はより多様な人々の願いに応える形へと進化しました。今日では、「商売繁昌」「産業興隆」「家内安全」「交通安全」「芸能上達」といった、現代社会におけるあらゆる側面を守護する神として、幅広い信仰を集めています。この神徳の広がりこそが、稲荷信仰が時代を超えて多くの人々に支持され続けてきた理由と言えるでしょう。 田中大神および四大神について：深遠なる地主神の系譜 摂社の祭神である田中大神と四大神については、その由緒が明確には分かっていない点が、かえってその神秘性を深めています。伏見稲荷大社では、これらの神々を「稲荷神と何らかの深い関わりがある地主神、あるいは土着神的傾向が濃厚」であると解釈しており、稲荷山という聖なる土地に古くから宿っていた、土着の信仰と稲荷信仰が融合した姿である可能性を示唆しています。 下社の摂社に祀られる田中大神は、その名が示す通り、「田の神」としての性格が最も強く考えられます。古くから日本の農耕社会において、田の神は豊作をもたらし、田を守る重要な存在として崇められてきました。興味深いことに、田中��神はかつて、国造りの神である「大己貴神（おおなむちのおおかみ）」や、道案内の神として知られる「猿田彦神（さたひこのおおかみ）」、さらには賀茂氏の祖神である「鴨建角身命（かもたけつぬみのみこと）」など、他の著名な神々と同一視されることもありました。これは、古代における多神教的な信仰の柔軟性と、異なる神々が持つ神徳の共通性を見出す人々の精神性を物語っています。 中社の摂社に祀られる四大神についても、その神格には様々な説があり、一柱の神名なのか、それとも四柱の神々の総称なのか、明確な結論は出ていません。江戸時代の国学者、前田夏蔭は、これを「若年神（わかとしのかみ）、夏高津日神（なつたかつひのかみ）、秋比売神（あきひめのかみ）、久久年神（くくとしのかみ）」の四柱であると唱えました。これらの神々は、宇迦之御魂神と同一視されることもある穀物神「オオゲツヒメ」の御子神であり、それぞれの名が「四季」を表していると解釈することもできます。これは、稲荷信仰が自然の循環、特に農耕と深く結びついていたことの証であり、生命の恵みをもたら��大いなる自然への畏敬の念が込められていると言えるでしょう。 歴史の深層：秦氏の創建から神仏習合、そして現代へ 伏見稲荷大社の歴史は、日本の古代から現代に至る壮大な時の流れを映し出しています。その創建の物語は、単なる事実の羅列ではなく、人々の想像力と信仰が織りなす、豊かな説話に彩られています。 「秦氏の祖霊として創建」の縁起：白鳥と稲の伝説 「イナリ」という名の由来については、古代の地誌『山城国風土記』にあったとされる「秦伊侶具（はたのいろぐ）」の縁起が最も有名であり、その神秘的な起源を今に伝えています。 風土記によれば、イナリと称する所以は次のようなものでした。秦中家忌寸（はたのなかつえのいみき）などの遠い祖先である秦氏族の「伊侶具」は、稲作によって大変な富を築き上げた裕福な人物でした。ある時、彼が餅を的として矢を射たところ、その餅は不思議なことに白鳥へと姿を変え、空高く飛び去り、この稲荷山に降り立ちました。その地に稲が成ったことから、人々はこの山を「稲荷（いなり）」と呼び、社名としたと伝えられています���後に伊侶具の子孫たちは、その軽率な行為を深く悔い、社の木を抜き取って自らの家に植え、丁重に祀り始めました。この伝承は現代にも「験（しるし）の杉」として受け継がれており、その木が根付けば福が訪れ、根付かなければ福が来ないという、人々の願いと畏敬の念が込められた習慣として息づいています。#文化 この秦氏について、『日本書紀』欽明紀には「秦大津父（はたのおおつち）」の記述があり、もともと山城国紀伊郡深草近辺に在住していたことが明確に示されています。また、秦氏と賀茂神社との関連や、秦氏が和銅年間に稲荷社の社家となったことを伝える記述も存在します。社伝によれば、当時全国的な天候不順によって作物の不作が続いていましたが、勅使を名山大川に遣わして祈請したところ、稲荷山に大神を祀ると五穀が稔り、国が豊かになったとも伝えられています。 上述の『山城国風土記』に見られるように、元来「イナリ」の表記には「伊奈利」の字が当てられていました。しかし、『類聚国史』に記されている淳和天皇の天長4年（827年）正月辛巳の詔において、初めて「稲荷」の���記が公式に用いられました。これ以降、『延喜式神名帳』には「山城国紀伊郡 稲荷神社三座 並名神大 月次・新甞」と記載され、名神大社に列せられるとともに、月次祭や新甞祭において朝廷からの幣帛（へいはく：供物）を受ける格式高い神社としての地位を確立しました。この歴史的な変遷は、稲荷信仰が単なる地方の信仰から、国家的な重要性を持つ存在へと昇華していった過程を鮮やかに示しています。 「弘法大師が出会った竜頭太」の縁起：神と仏の邂逅 東寺などに伝わる文献には、空海（弘法大師）と稲荷神の深遠な関係を伝える伝説が残されています。これらの説話は平安時代初期を舞台としていますが、文献自体の成立は14世紀頃である点に留意することで、神仏習合が進んだ時代の精神性をより深く理解することができます。 『稲荷大明神流記』などには、次のような神秘的な出会いが描かれています。弘仁7年（816年）4月頃、紀州国の熊野で厳しく修行中の空海は、田辺の宿で常人とは思えない風格を湛えた老翁に出会いました。その老翁は身の丈八尺（約240cm）にも及ぶ立派な体躯で、威厳に満ちていましたが、それを表に出さない静かな顔立ちをしていました。老人は空海に会えたことを心から喜び、語りかけます。「自分は（以前そなたに会ったことのある）神である #japan #travel #history #culture #nature
Bem-vindo! Prepare-se para uma #viagem inesquecível pelo coração de #Portugal. Olá, aventureiros e amantes de paisagens de tirar o fôlego! Sejam bem-vindos ao meu diário de bordo, onde hoje vos levo numa #viagem inesquecível a um dos tesouros mais cintilantes de #Portugal: a Ilha da Madeira, carinhosamente apelidada de "O Jardim Flutuante do Atlântico". Preparem-se para uma imersão profunda num paraíso que desafia a imaginação, onde a natureza exuberante e uma história rica se encontram para criar uma experiência verdadeiramente mágica. Desde o momento em que o avião começa a descer, e as suas asas rasgam o azul profundo do Atlântico, a Madeira revela-se como uma joia esmeralda, emergindo majestosa das ondas. É a ilha principal de um arquipélago que partilha o nome, um conjunto de terras vulcânicas que pontilham o vasto oceano, a sudoeste da costa portuguesa. Juntamente com a serena Porto Santo, as misteriosas Ilhas Desertas e as intocadas Ilhas Selvagens, forma a Região Autónoma da Madeira, uma parcela vibrante da #Europa, com a sua capital, a pitoresca cidade do Funchal, a pulsear na costa sul. Este pedaço de terra, com os seus 742,4 km², é um testemunho vivo da força primordial da natureza. De origem vulcânica, a ilha é uma tela de contrastes, onde uma flora deslumbrante – endémica, nativa e exótica – pinta as encostas e vales com todas as tonalidades de verde. O clima, um abraço mediterrânico nas zonas costeiras do sul, transforma-se num temperado revigorante à medida que se ascende às alturas, garantindo uma diversidade paisagística que cativa a alma. Não é de estranhar que a sua economia gire amplamente em torno do turismo, pois quem visita a Madeira raramente a esquece. Geografia: Onde a Magia Encontra o Oceano A Madeira não é apenas uma ilha; é um ponto de referência, um farol de beleza no vasto Oceano Atlântico. Faz parte da Macaronésia, uma região biogeográfica que reúne arquipélagos de beleza singular. O Funchal, o coração pulsante da ilha, é um centro urbano vibrante e um porto acolhedor, aninhado na costa sul (32°38'29.8"N – 16°54'45.6"W). A sua posição geográfica é fascinante: dista cerca de 685 km da costa africana (Cabo do Sem, Marrocos), 973 km da nossa Lisboa, 520 km da Gran Canaria e 891 km da ilha de Santa Maria, a vizinha mais próxima do arquipélago dos Açores. Estas distâncias sublinham o seu carácter insular, mas também a sua estratégica centralidade atlântica. Percorrer a Madeira é descobrir um mundo em miniatura. Com um comprimento máximo de 54 km de oeste a leste e uma largura máxima de 23 km de norte a sul, cada curva da estrada revela uma nova perspetiva, um novo horizonte, uma nova maravilha. É uma ilha compacta, mas infinitamente rica em experiências. Clima: Uma Sinfonia de Estações e Sensações O clima da Madeira é uma das suas maiores bênçãos, uma verdadeira dádiva da natureza que molda a sua paisagem e o seu ritmo de vida. Segundo a classificação climática de Köppen-Geiger, a ilha presenteia-nos com um mediterrânico de verão quente (Csa) nas suas quotas mais baixas, convidando a banhos de sol e mergulhos refrescantes. À medida que subimos, o ar torna-se mais fresco, transformando-se num mediterrânico de verão fresco (Csb), ideal para caminhadas e exploração. Mas a complexidade climática da Madeira não se fica por aqui. De acordo com a Classificação Bioclimática da Terra, a ilha é um mosaico de três bioclimas distintos: o Mediterrânico Xérico Oceânico, o Mediterrânico Pluviestacional Oceânico e o Temperado Hiperoceânico. Esta diversidade é a chave para a sua luxuriante vegetação e para a variedade de ecossistemas que podemos encontrar. As temperaturas médias anuais são um convite constante, mantendo-se agradavelmente acima dos 20 °C, acariciando a pele com um calor suave. E a água do mar? Um convite irrecusável! Oscila entre os 26 °C no verão, perfeitos para um mergulho prolongado, e uns convidativos 17 °C no inverno, que ainda permitem desfrutar da praia. Os ventos são como a respiração da ilha: de oeste a noroeste no inverno, trazendo consigo o ar fresco do oceano, e de nordeste no verão, os famosos alísios, que refrescam os dias quentes e impulsionam os barcos à vela. A precipitação anual é tão variada quanto a paisagem. No sudeste da ilha, onde o sol parece reinar quase sem interrupções, os valores rondam os 500 mm, contribuindo para um ambiente mais seco e árido. No entanto, nas encostas norte, a chuva é uma benção que alimenta a floresta, podendo ultrapassar os 2 000 mm anuais, criando um verde profundo e vibrante. Em contraste, as Ilhas Selvagens, que também integram este arquipélago, vivem sob um clima desértico, com precipitações que não chegam aos 200 mm anualmente, uma prova da incrível diversidade que se encontra nestas paragens atlânticas. E depois há o "tempo de leste", um fenómeno meteorológico que confere um toque exótico à ilha. É quando massas de ar quente, empoeirado e carregado de areias finas, provenientes do vasto deserto do Saara, viajam até à Madeira e às Canárias. Este ar traz consigo uma visibilidade reduzida e um aumento da poluição atmosférica, criando uma atmosfera quase onírica, com céus dourados e um ar denso, mais frequente nos meses de verão, mas capaz de nos surpreender em qualquer estação. É uma lembrança da proximidade da ilha com o continente africano e da sua posição única no Atlântico. Paisagens: A Obra-Prima da #Nature Preparem-se para um espetáculo visual que desafia qualquer descrição. A Madeira é uma ilha que se ergue orgulhosamente do oceano, esculpida pela força vulcânica e pela erosão dos ventos e das águas. É intensamente montanhosa, com picos que arranham o céu e vales profundos que se aninham entre eles, criando uma topografia dramática e inesquecível. A maior parte da costa, que se estende por cerca de 160 km, é adornada por falésias vertiginosas que mergulham abruptamente no azul do mar, oferecendo vistas panorâmicas de cortar a respiração. A altitude média da ilha é de 1 372 m, o que já dá uma ideia da sua imponência. Mas são os seus pontos mais elevados que verdadeiramente nos deixam sem palavras: o majestoso Pico Ruivo, que se eleva a 1 862 m, e o Pico das Torres, com 1 853 m, são os guardiões silenciosos desta terra, oferecendo vistas que se estendem até onde a vista alcança, sobre um mar de nuvens e montanhas. As praias de areia fina são uma raridade, conferindo à Madeira um encanto selvagem e intocado. Aqui, a beleza reside na força bruta da rocha, nos calhaus rolados pelo mar e nas piscinas naturais que se formam nas rostas. No extremo leste, a Ponta de São Lourenço desdobra-se num cabo alongado e relativamente pouco elevado, prolongando-se em dois ilhéus próximos, uma paisagem quase lunar que contrasta com o verde luxuriante do interior. É um local de beleza agreste, onde os ventos sopram e o mar bate com força, um convite à contemplação. Na costa sul, a oeste do Funchal, ergue-se o imponente Cabo Girão, uma das mais altas falésias do mundo. A sensação de estar suspenso sobre o oceano, com o vidro transparente do miradouro a revelar o abismo a centenas de metros abaixo, é uma experiência que nos faz sentir pequenos perante a grandiosidade da natureza. É um local imperdível, onde a audácia da engenharia humana se encontra com a magnificência geológica. E como falar da Madeira sem mencionar as suas famosas levadas? Esta rede intrincada de canais de irrigação, que serpenteia pelas montanhas e vales, é um testemunho da engenhosidade humana e um património de valor incalculável. Caminhar pelas levadas é mergulhar no coração da ilha, atravessando túneis escuros, ladeando precipícios e descobrindo cascatas escondidas, tudo isto enquanto se admira a beleza da paisagem. É uma forma única de apreciar a #architecture da paisagem e o trabalho de gerações. O coberto vegetal da ilha é, em grande parte, dominado pela floresta laurissilva, um tesouro ancestral classificado como Património da Humanidade pela UNESCO em 1999. Esta floresta, um relíquia do Terciário, é um santuário de biodiversidade, abrigando espécies endémicas que não se encontram em mais parte alguma do mundo. Mas a paisagem verde da Madeira não se limita à laurissilva; é enriquecida por plantas trazidas pelos colonos ao longo dos séculos, e por uma profusão de variedades tropicais cultivadas, como as doces bananas e os exóticos maracujás, que adicionam cor e sabor à ilha. O solo vulcânico, incrivelmente fértil (cerca de 3 vezes mais fértil que o de Portugal Continental!), aliado à humidade constante das montanhas, cria as condições perfeitas para o crescimento de uma vegetação exuberante, que nos faz sentir num verdadeiro jardim botânico a céu aberto. História: Ecos de Descobertas e Pioneir #portugal #travel #history #europe #cultura
ようこそ。日本の美しき歴史と文化の旅へ。 鹿苑寺（金閣寺）：極楽浄土を映す黄金の楼閣 序論：黄金の幻影が語るもの 京都の北山、その緩やかな稜線を背にして、陽光を浴びて燦然と輝く一枚の奇跡があります。通称「金閣寺」としてあまりにも高名なその寺院は、正式な名を「北山鹿苑禅寺（ほくざんろくおんぜんじ）」と称します。臨済宗相国寺派に属し、大本山相国寺の境外塔頭として静かに佇むこの禅刹は、山号を「北山」と仰ぎ、本尊には聖観世音菩薩を戴いています。 私たちがこの黄金の楼閣の前に立つとき、胸を去来するのは単なる視覚的な絢爛さへの感嘆だけではありません。それは、中世の精神が到達したある種の絶対的な調和であり、現世に現れた極楽浄土の具現そのものです。本稿では、この美の聖地が内包する重層的な歴史、建築に秘められた宇宙観、そして幾度もの破滅を乗り越えて再生を果たした不屈の精神性について、学術的かつ哲学的な視点から深く思索を巡らせていきたいと思います。第一章：北山に拓かれた精神の系譜 ―― 荒廃から室町幕府の頂点へ 1. 鎌倉期の胎動と西園寺家の栄枯盛衰 この地に歴史の光が当てられたのは、鎌倉時代初期の承久2年（1220年）頃に遡ります。当時、神祇官白川伯王家が所有していたこの地を、公卿の西園寺公経が自らの所領である尾張国松枝庄と交換することで入手しました。公経は元仁元年（1224年）にこの地に「西園寺」を建立し、それと呼応するように、贅を尽くした山荘「北山第」と見事な庭園を造営しました。 西園寺家は、朝廷と鎌倉幕府との強固なパイプ役である「関東申次」を代々務め、一世を風靡した名門でした。しかし、鎌倉幕府の滅亡という地殻変動が彼らの運命を暗転させます。後醍醐天皇による建武の新政下、当時の当主であった西園寺公宗が天皇暗殺を���てたという嫌疑で処刑され、一族の広大な資産と所領は没収されました。主を失った北山第と西園寺は、時の流れの中で急速に荒廃し、かつての栄華は見る影もなく失われていきました。 2. 足利義満による「北山殿」の創出 荒れ果てたこの地に新たな生命を吹き込み、さらなる絶対的な権威の象徴へと変貌させたのが、室町幕府第3代将軍、足利義満でした。応永4年（1397年）、義満は河内国の自領と交換する形でこの地を譲り受け、大規模な改築と新築を断行して「北山山荘（北山殿・北山第）」を造立しました。 この山荘の規模は、当時の御所をも凌駕するほど壮大なものであり、政治・外交・宗教のすべてがこの北山殿に集約されていました。応永元年（1394年）に将軍職を息子の義持に譲っていた義満ですが、実権を手放すことはなく、この豪奢な山荘において、天下の政務を執り続けたのです。 応永6年（1399年）頃、現在私たちが目にする金閣の祖形となる「舎利殿（金閣）」が完成したと推定されています。同じ年には、相国寺に高さ約109メートルに及ぶ七重大塔が完成しており、これは日本史上最も高い��塔とされています。義満は、自らの権力を天に届かんばかりの高さと、地を照らす黄金の輝きによって視覚化しようとしたのです。 応永10年（1403年）、相国寺の七重大塔が落雷により焼失すると、義満は即座にこの北山殿の地に同規模の「北山大塔（七重大塔）」を再建しました。しかし、義満という巨星が応永15年（1408年）に急逝すると、その政治的景観は大きく揺らぎます。後を継いだ第4代将軍足利義持は、父の政治路線を否定するかのように、北山第の一部を破却して三条坊門第へと移りました。応永23年（1416年）に北山大塔が再び落雷で焼失した際、義持は当地での再建を許さず、相国寺での再建を命じています。 3. 日野康子の死と「鹿苑寺」の誕生 その後、北山第は義満の妻である北山院日野康子の御所として機能していましたが、応永26年（1419年）11月に彼女が逝去すると、舎利殿を残して寝殿などの主要な建物は解体され、南禅寺や建仁寺へと寄贈されました。 翌応永27年（1420年）、義満の遺言に従い、この地は禅寺として生まれ変わります。義満の法号「鹿苑院殿」にちなんで「鹿苑寺」と命名され、名目上の開山（勧請開山）として高僧・夢窓疎石が迎えられました。 時が流れ、義満の孫である第8代将軍足利義政もまた、この鹿苑寺をたびたび訪れました。『蔭涼軒日録』によれば、応仁の乱の終結から8年が経過した文明17年（1485年）10月15日、義政は荒廃した境内を視察しています。乱の戦火を奇跡的に免れた金閣でしたが、かつて美しい紅葉を誇った庭園の楓の大半は伐採され、鏡湖池の水量も減少していました。さらに、二層に安置されていた観音像は失われて新しい像に代わっており、三層の阿弥陀如来と二十五菩薩像に至っては、像そのものが消失し、その背後にあった白雲の装飾だけが残されているという、寂寞たる状態でした。 義政はこの祖父の遺産の美しさと、そこに漂う無常観に深く影響を受け、自らが造営する東山山荘（現在の慈照寺）に「観音殿（銀閣）」を建てることになります。 徳川家康の命により江戸時代に西笑承兌が住職となってからは、主要な建築の再建が進み、慶安2年（1649年）には舎利殿の大修理が行われました。明治維新期には廃仏毀釈の嵐に晒され、寺領の多くを失って経��的苦境に立たされましたが、第十二世住職である貫宗承一の英断により、1894年（明治27年）から庭園と金閣の一般公開を開始。その拝観料によって寺院の維持・運営を賄うという、近代的な保護の道が拓かれたのです。第二章：三界を統合する建築美 ―― 「二重三階」の宇宙観 鹿苑寺を象徴する「舎利殿（金閣）」は、鏡湖池（きょうこち）の北岸に南面して建つ、木造3階建ての楼閣建築です。屋根は宝形造で杮（こけら）葺きとなっており、その頂点には黄金に輝く銅製鳳凰が羽ばたいています。3階建てでありながら、初層と二層の間に屋根の庇を作らない「二重三階」という独特の形式を有しています。 この建築の最も特筆すべき点は、各層が異なる建築様式を持ちながらも、全体として完璧な調和を保っている点にあります。それはまさに、室町時代の多様な文化の融合を体現するものです。 【金閣（舎利殿）の三層構造】 ┌──────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ 三層：究竟頂（くっきょうちょう）- 禅宗仏殿造 │ (全面金箔・仏舎利) ├──────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ 二層：潮音洞（ちょうおんどう） - 武家造 │ (外面金箔・観音像) ├──────────────────────────────────────────────┤ │ 初層：法水院（ほうすいいん） - 寝殿造 │ (素木仕上げ・釈迦像) └──────────────────────────────────────────────┘1. 初層：「法水院（ほうすいいん）」 ―― 平安の雅を伝える素木の世界 初層は、平安時代の貴族文化を象徴する「寝殿造」の様式を踏襲しています。二層、三層とは異なり、あえて金箔を貼らずに素木のまま仕上げられており、落ち着いた佇まいを見せています。 正面5間、側面4間のこの空間は、前面の1間通りを吹き放しの広縁とし、奥に広がる板敷きの1室で構成されています。西から2間目の柱間が他よりも広く設計されており、ここには須弥壇が設けられています。壇上には、宝冠釈迦如来坐像と、法体をまとった足利義満の坐像が静かに安置され、世俗と信仰の交錯を示しています。 西側には、池に向かって突き出すように「漱清（そうせい）」と呼ばれる切妻造の小亭が設けられており、水と建築が一体となる寝殿造ならではの優美な景観を形作っています。 2. 二層：「潮音洞（ちょうおんどう）」 ―― 鎌倉の武威と漆黒の対比 二層は、鎌倉時代の「武家造」の建築様式を取り入れています。外面と高欄は全面に眩い金箔が貼られ、初層の素木との鮮烈なコントラストを描き出します。 内部は、西側の3間四方の仏間と、東側の階段室に分かれています。仏間の中央には観音菩薩坐像（岩屋観音）が安置され、その周囲を四天王像が厳重に守護しています。床面と壁面は黒漆塗で仕上げられており、天井には優美な飛天像が描かれています。漆黒の空間の中で金箔の反射光が微かに揺らめく様は、まさに仏教的な玄妙さを象徴しています。 3. 三層：「究竟頂（くっきょうちょう）」 ―― 禅宗の精神性と究極の黄金 最上層である三層は、鎌倉時代にもたらされた「唐様（禅宗仏殿造）」の様式で建てられています。方3間のこの狭小な空間こそが、仏舎利（釈迦の遺骨）を安置する最も神聖な場所です。 初層の蔀戸（しとみど）、二層の舞良戸（まいらど）に対し、三層では禅宗様の特徴である「桟唐戸（さんからど）」や「花頭窓（かとうまど）」が用いられています。外面だけでなく、天井や壁を含めた室内までもが全面金箔張り（床面を除く）となっており、太陽の光を浴びて建物全体が自ら発光しているかのような神々しさを放ちます。軒に掛けられた「究竟頂」の扁額は、後小松天皇の宸筆によるものです。 このように、公家文化（初層）、武家文化（二層）、禅宗文化（三層）という、異なる階層の様式を縦に積み重ね、最上部を禅宗の「究極の境地（究竟頂）」で統括するという構造は、足利義満が目指した「自らを頂点とする世界の秩序」 #japan #travel #history #culture #nature
ようこそ。日本の美しき歴史と文化の旅へ。 音羽山清水寺：断崖に立つ祈りの舞台 京都の東山、音羽山の山腹に抱かれるようにして佇む清水寺。その朱塗りの仁王門をくぐり、緩やかな坂道を登り進めると、眼前に広がるのは、古都の街並みを一望する壮大なパノラマと、天空に突き出たかのような本堂の舞台です。 私たち現代人がこの地を訪れるとき、足元に広がるのは単なる観光地としての華やかさだけではありません。そこには、千二百年を超える歳月のなかで、幾度もの戦火と災厄を乗り越え、人々の「祈り」を物質化し続けてきた精神の記念碑がそびえ立っています。本稿では、北法相宗大本山であり、ユネスコ世界遺産にも登録されている���羽山清水寺の歴史的深淵、建築学的奇跡、そしてその根底に流れる観音信仰の哲学について、学術的かつ詩的な視点から深く紐解いていきたいと思います。第一章：清水寺の黎明――夢告と二人の先駆者が紡いだ創生神話 清水寺の起源は、奈良時代末期、光仁天皇の御代である宝亀9年（778年）にまで遡ります。それは、正史の行間に漂う霧のような、神秘的な夢告から始まりました。 大和国興福寺の高僧であり、子島寺（現在の奈良県高市郡高取町に位置する寺院）にて峻烈な修行を重ねていた賢心（のちの延鎮）は、ある夜、霊夢を見ます。「北へ向かい、清らかな水源を求めよ」という神仏の意志に導かれ、賢心は緑深い山城国愛宕郡八坂郷の東山、すなわち現在の音羽山へと足を踏み入れました。 山中を探索する賢心の眼に飛び込んできたのは、黄金色に輝きながら流れる一本の水脈でした。その神秘的な水源をたどって渓谷を遡上した彼は、音羽の滝のほとりで、白衣を身にまとった一人の老修行者と邂逅します。その名は行叡居士（ぎょうえいこじ）。齢二百歳を数えるというその老仙は、この深��山林に隠棲し、長年にわたって滝行を行い、千手観音への祈りを捧げ続けていたといいます。 行叡は賢心の姿を見るなり、静かに告げました。 「私はお前がこの地を訪れるのを、遥かなる歳月の間、待ち続けていた。いま、私は東国へと旅立つ。この神聖な草庵と、観音への祈りの跡を、お前に託したい」 そう言い残すと、行叡は忽然と姿を消してしまいました。賢心は、この不可思議な老行者こそが観世音菩薩の化身であったと悟ります。彼は行叡が残していった霊木を拾い上げ、そこに渾身の祈りを込めて千手観音像を刻み、行叡の旧庵に安置しました。これが、今日まで続く音羽山清水寺の、最も原初的な形態における産声であったのです。のちに、行叡が修行を重ねていたその清らかな水流は「音羽の滝」と呼ばれるようになり、霊験あらたかな名水として人々の信仰を集めることになります。 【清水寺創生の三柱】 元祖：行叡居士（観音の化身として霊地を護持した存在） 開山：延鎮（賢心。夢告に従い、霊木に観音像を刻んだ僧） 本願：坂上田村麻呂（自邸を寄進し、大伽藍の礎を築いた武人）それから二年後の宝亀11年（780年）、この霊山に運命的なもう一人の人物が現れます。のちに征夷大将軍として歴史にその名を刻む武人、坂上田村麻呂です。当時、田村麻呂は身重の妻である高子の病を癒やすため、その特効薬とされていた鹿の生き血を求めて音羽山へ狩猟に入り込んでいました。 山深くで鹿を狙う田村麻呂の前に現れたのは、ひたむきに修行を続ける僧・賢心でした。賢心は、無益な殺生がもたらす業（カルマ）の深さを優しく解き明かし、観音の慈悲の心を説きました。その教えに深く心を打たれた田村麻呂は、狩猟を止め、観世音菩薩に帰依することを誓います。彼は妻の平癒を祈るとともに、自らの私邸を解体して本堂として寄進しました。そして、音羽の滝の清らかな流レにちなんで、この寺を「清水寺」と命名したのです。 その後、征夷大将軍に任ぜられ、東国の蝦夷平定を命じられた田村麻呂は、出征に際して清水寺を参拝し、戦勝を祈願しました。戦地においては、にわかに現れた若武者と老僧（それぞれ観音の使者である毘沙門天と地蔵菩薩の化身とされる）の超自然的な加勢を得て��見事に平定を成し遂げ、無事に都へと凱旋することができたと伝えられています。延暦17年（798年）、田村麻呂は開山である延鎮（賢心から改名）と協力し、本堂を大規模に改築。本尊の脇侍として毘沙門天と地蔵菩薩の像を造立し、ともに祀りました。 このように、清水寺の創建には、出家者としての深い瞑想と、世俗の権力者としての武人の武勲、そして民衆の素朴な病平癒の願いが複雑に絡み合っています。この重層的な歴史こそが、清水寺を単なる山岳修行の場に留めず、日本を代表する一大霊場へと押し上げる原動力となったのです。第二章：千年の激動――南都北嶺の争いと、灰燼からの奇跡的な復活 延暦24年（805年）、太政官符によって坂上田村麻呂に寺地が正式に下賜され、さらに弘仁元年（810年）には嵯峨天皇の勅許を得て公認の寺院となりました。このとき、嵯峨天皇より「北観音寺」という栄えある寺号を賜っています。 平安時代中期に差し掛かると、清水寺の観音信仰は貴族から庶民に至るまで広く浸透していきました。清少納言は『枕草子』において、人の群れが押し寄せる「さわがしきもの」の代表例として清水観音の縁日を挙げており、紫式部の『源氏物語』「夕顔」の巻や、説話集である『今昔物語集』にも、清水観音へ熱心に参詣する人々の姿が活写されています。このように、当時から京都随一の霊地としてその名を轟かせていました。 しかし、その輝かしい歴史の裏側は、絶え間ない火災と紛争の歴史でもありました。清水寺は、平安時代から近世の寛永6年（1629年）の焼失に至るまで、記録に残っているだけで実に9回もの全焼・半焼を繰り返しています。 【清水寺・九度の罹災と再建の軌跡】 1. 康平6年（1063年） - 火災による焼失（『扶桑略記』等に記載） 2. 永万元年（1165年） - 延暦寺の僧兵による焼き討ち 〜中略〜 8. 文明元年（1469年） - 応仁の乱の兵火による全焼 9. 寛永6年（1629年） - 失火による焼失 → 寛永10年（1633年）徳川家光により再建清水寺は長年、奈良の法相宗大本山である興福寺（南都）の支配下にありました。平安時代中期からは真言宗を兼宗していましたが、その帰属関係ゆえに、京都の比叡山延暦寺（北嶺）との間に勃発した「南都北嶺」の果てしない抗争に巻き込まれることになります。永万元年（1165年）、延暦寺の僧兵たちが大挙して音羽山に乱入し、清水寺の伽藍は跡形もなく焼き払われました。 さらに時代が下り、文明元年（1469年）、京都全土を焦土と化した応仁の乱の兵火が清水寺を襲います。このときも、由緒ある諸堂はことごとく灰燼に帰しました。この絶望的な状況において、清水寺の再興に立ち上がったのが、時宗の勧進聖（かんじんひじり）であった願阿弥（がんあみ）です。 願阿弥は清水寺に入る以前から、各地で橋梁の架橋や寺院の修復、さらには貧困にあえぐ人々への救恤（社会福祉活動）に従事していた人物でした。彼は自らが率いる強力な勧進集団と、朝廷や幕府の有力者との間に築いた広範な人脈を駆使し、清水寺の再建資金を集めるための大規模な勧進活動を展開しました。願阿弥自身は、再興のすべてを見届けることなくこの世を去りましたが、彼の率いた集団は寺内に強固な地歩を築き、のちに「本願成就院（ほんがんじょうじゅいん）」として、近世における寺院運営の中核を担う組織へと発展していくことになります。 織豊��に入ると、天下人となった豊臣秀吉によって130石の寺領が安堵され、この特権は江戸幕府によっても継承されました。しかし、寛永6年（1629年）、またしても不慮の火災により主要な堂宇が焼失してしまいます。 現在、私たちが目にする壮麗な本堂をはじめとする諸堂の多くは、この寛永の火災の後、寛永10年（1633年）に、三代将軍徳川家光の莫大な寄進と全面的な支援によって再建されたものです。徳川幕府の強大な権力と財力が、幾度倒れても不屈の精神で立ち上がる清水寺の「不死鳥」のような歴史を、現代に伝える強固な木造建築として結晶させたのです。第三章：三職六坊の自治と、近代における「北法相宗」への独立 近世から近代にかけて、清水寺は「三職六坊（さんしきろくぼう）」と呼ばれる、極めて組織的かつ自律的な制度によって維持・運営されていました。 「三職」とは、寺院の最高の運営責任者たちを指 #japan #travel #history #culture #nature
Bienvenue! Let us embark on an unforgettable #journey to the heart of #France. The Palace of Versailles (French: Château de Versailles) is a château and historic monument in Versailles in the Yvelines department of #France, southwest of #Paris. It served as the principal residence of the French kings Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. The king, the court, and the royal government lived there permanently from 6 May 1682 until 6 October 1789, except during the Regency years (1715–1723). Conceived by Louis XIV to glorify the French monarchy, the palace became the most important architectural project of his reign and is considered one of the masterpieces of French classical #architecture. It exerted major influence across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries in architecture and the decorative arts. The palace forms a vast and complex ensemble of courtyards and buildings designed to maintain architectural harmony. It covers about 63,154 square metres and contains roughly 2,300 rooms, around 1,000 of which belong to the National Museum of the #history of France housed in the Palace and the Trianons. The park of the Palace of Versailles covers 815 hectares today, compared with more than 8,000 hectares before the French Revolution. Of this area, 93 hectares are formal gardens. The estate includes numerous features, such as the Petit Trianon and Grand Trianon—later used by Napoleon I, Louis XVIII, Charles X, Louis Philippe I, and Napoleon III—as well as the Hameau de la Reine, the Grand and Petit Canal, a former menagerie, the Orangerie, and the Pièce d'Eau des Suisses. As one of the most visited sites in Europe, the estate is central to ongoing discussions about managing overtourism. Location The Palace of Versailles is located in the north‑west part of the commune of Versailles, on the Place d’Armes, about 16 kilometres south‑west of Paris. The term “Palace of Versailles” refers both to the main palace building and its immediate surroundings, as well as to the entire Versailles estate, which includes — among other elements — the Grand Trianon, the Petit Trianon, the Grand Canal, and the palace park. History The site of Versailles is first mentioned in 1038 in a charter of the Abbey of Saint‑Père de Chartres. During the Middle Ages, the area consisted of small villages, farmland, and woodland. In the 16th century, the lands that would become Versailles were owned by the Gondi family, who were influential at the French court. Louis XIII acquired part of the land in 1623 and purchased the remainder in 1632. Before the later palace existed, Louis XIII built a modest brick‑and‑stone hunting lodge in 1623. The building consisted of a central block flanked by two wings and measured about 35 metres in length. Surrounded by marshland, it was sometimes mocked by contemporaries as the “chétif château” (“puny château”) or the “château de cartes” (“house of cards”) because of its red brick, white stone, and slate colours. The lodge included a small gallery, several rooms hung with tapestries, and a central salon that later became the location of Louis XIV’s bedchamber. In 1630, the château was the site of the political event known as the Day of the Dupes, during which Cardinal Richelieu regained the king’s favour. After the death of Louis XIII in 1643, the estate fell into neglect for nearly two decades. The lodge and its grounds were poorly maintained, and disputes arose among the estate’s staff. The captain of the hunt, Louis Lenormand de Beaumont, was assassinated in 1660, contributing to the disorder on the estate. Louis XIV began to take an interest in Versailles shortly after his marriage in 1660. He ordered the reorganization of the gardens, the dismissal of corrupt staff, and the repair of the buildings. His valet, Jérôme Blouin, was placed in charge of restoring order to the estate. These early improvements prepared the site for the larger construction campaigns that began in 1664. In 1623, Louis XIII, king of France, built a hunting lodge on a hill in a favourite hunting ground, 19 kilometres (12 mi) west of Paris, and 16 kilometres (10 mi) from his primary residence, the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The site, near a village called Versailles, was a wooded wetland that Louis XIII's court scorned as being generally unworthy of a king; one of his courtiers, François de Bassompierre, wrote that the lodge "would not inspire vanity in even the simplest gentleman". From 1631 to 1634, architect Philibert Le Roy replaced the lodge with a château for Louis XIII, who forbade his queen, Anne of Austria, from staying there overnight, even when an outbreak of smallpox at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1641 forced Louis XIII to relocate to Versailles with his three-year-old heir, the future Louis XIV. When Louis XIII died in 1643, Anne became Louis XIV's regent, and Louis XIII's château was abandoned for the next decade. She moved the court back to Paris, where Anne and her chief minister, Cardinal Mazarin, continued Louis XIII's unpopular monetary practices. This led to the Fronde, a series of revolts against royal authority from 1648 to 1653 that masked a struggle between Mazarin and the princes of the blood, Louis XIV's extended family, for influence over him. In the aftermath of the Fronde, Louis XIV became determined to rule alone. Following Mazarin's death in 1661, Louis XIV reformed his government to exclude his mother and the princes of the blood, moved the court back to Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and ordered the expansion of his father's château at Versailles into a palace. Louis XIV had hunted at Versailles in the 1650s, but did not take any special interest in Versailles until 1661. On 17 August 1661, Louis XIV was a guest at a sumptuous festival hosted by Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances, at his palatial residence, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte. Louis XIV was impressed by the château and its gardens, which were the work of Louis Le Vau, the court architect since 1654, André Le Nôtre, the royal gardener since 1657, and Charles Le Brun, a painter in royal service since 1647. Vaux-le-Vicomte's scale and opulence led him to imprison Fouquet that September, as he had also built an island fortress and a private army. But Louis XIV was also inspired by Vaux-le-Vicomte, and he recruited its authors for his own projects. Louis XIV replaced Fouquet with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a protégé of Mazarin and enemy of Fouquet, and charged him with managing the corps of artisans in royal employment. Colbert acted as the intermediary between them and Louis XIV, who personally directed and inspected the planning and construction of Versailles. Construction Work at Versailles was at first concentrated on gardens, and through the 1660s, Le Vau only added two detached service wings and a forecourt to the château. But in 1668–69, as a response to the growth of the gardens, and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Louis XIV decided to turn Versailles into a full-scale royal residence. He vacillated between replacing or incorporating his father's château, but settled on the latter by the end of the decade, and from 1668 to 1671, Louis XIII's château was encased on three sides in a feature dubbed the enveloppe. This gave the château a new, Italianate façade overlooking the gardens, but preserved the courtyard façade, resulting in a mix of styles and materials that dismayed Louis XIV and that Colbert described as a "patchwork". Attempts to homogenize the two façades failed, and in 1670 Le Vau died, leaving the post of First Architect to the King vacant for the next seven years. Le Vau was succeeded at Versailles by his assistant, architect François d'Orbay. Work at the palace during the 1670s focused on its interiors, as the palace was then nearing completion, though d'Orbay expanded Le Vau's service wings and connected them to the château, and built a pair of pavilions for government employees in the forecourt. In 1670, d'Orbay was tasked by Louis XIV with designing a city, also called Versailles, to house and service Louis XIV's growing government and court. The granting of land to courtiers for the construction of townhouses that resembled the palace began in 1671. The next year, the Franco-Dutch War began and funding for Versailles was cut until 1674, when Louis XIV had work begun on the Ambassadors' Staircase, a grand staircase for the reception of guests, and demolished the last of the village of Versailles. Following the end of the Franco-Dutch War with French victory in 1678, Louis XIV appointed as First Architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart, an experienced architect in Louis XIV's confidence, who would benefit from a restored budget and large workforce of former soldiers. Mansart began his tenure with the addition from 1678 to 1681 of the Hall of Mirrors, a renovation of the courtyard façade of Louis XIII's château, and the expansion of d'Orbay's pavilions to create the Ministers' Wings in 1678–79. Adjacent to the palace, Hardouin-Mansart built a pair of stables called the Grande and Petite Écuries from 1679 to 1682 and the Grand Commun, which housed the palace's servants and general kitchens, from 1682 to 1684. Hardouin-Mansart also added two entirely new wings in Le Vau's Italianate style to house the court, first at the south end of the palace from 1679 to 1681 and then at its north end from 1685 to 1689. War and the resulting diminished funding slowed construction at Versailles for the rest of the 17th century. The Nine Years' War, which began in 1688, stopped work altogether until 1698. Three years later, however, the even more expensive War of the Spanish Succession began and, combined with poor harvests in 1693–94 and 1709–10, plunged France into crisis. Louis XIV thus slashed funding and cancelled some of the work Hardouin-Mansart had planned in the 1680s, such as the remodelling of the courtyard façade in the Italianate style. Louis XIV and Hardouin-Mansart focused on a permanent palace chapel, the construction of which lasted from 1699 to 1710. Louis XIV's successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, largely left Versailles as they inherited it and focused on the palace's interiors. Louis XV's modifications began in the 1730s, with the completion of the Salon d'Hercule, a ballroom in the north wing, and the expansion of the king's private apartment, which required the demolition of the Ambassadors' Staircase. In 1748, Louis XV began construction of a palace theatre, the Royal Opera of Versailles at the northernmost end of the palace, but completion was delayed until 1770; construction was interrupted in the 1740s by the War of the Austrian Succession and then again in 1756 with the start of the Seven Years' War. These wars emptied the royal treasury and thereafter construction was mostly funded by Madame du Barry, Louis XV's favourite mistress. In 1771, Louis XV had the northern Ministers' Wing rebuilt in Neoclassical style by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, his court architect, as it was in the process of falling down. That work was also stopped by financial constraints, and it remained incomplete when Louis XV died in 1774. In 1784, Louis XVI briefly moved the royal family to the Château de Saint-Cloud ahead of more renovations to the Palace of Versailles, but construction could not begin because of financial difficulty and political crisis. In 1789, the French Revolution swept the royal family and government out of Versailles forever. Role in politics and #culture The Palace of Versailles was key to Louis XIV's politics, as an expression and concentration of French art and culture, and for the centralization of royal power. Louis XIV first used Versailles to promote himself with a series of nighttime festivals in its gardens in 1664, 1668, and 1674, the events of which were disseminated throughout Europe by print and engravings. As early as 1669, but especially from 1678, Louis XIV sought to make Versailles his seat of government, and he expanded the palace so as to fit the court within it. The moving of the court to Versailles did not come until 1682, however, and not officially, as opinion on Versailles was mixed among the nobility of France. By 1687, however, it was evident to all that Versailles was the de facto capital of France, and Louis XIV succeeded in attracting the nobility to Versailles to pursue prestige and royal patronage within a strict court etiquette, thus eroding their traditional provincial power bases. It was at the Palace of Versailles that Louis XIV received the Doge of Genoa, Francesco Maria Imperiale Lercari in 1685, an embassy from the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1686, and an embassy from Safavid Iran in 1715. Louis XIV died at Versailles on 1 September 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV, then the duke of Anjou, who was moved to the Château de Vincennes and then to Paris by Louis XV's regent, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. Versailles was neglected until 1722, when Philippe II removed the court to Versailles to escape the unpopularity of his regency, and when Louis XV began his majority. The 1715 move, however, broke the cultural power of Versailles, and during the reign of Louis XVI, courtiers spent their leisure in Paris, not Versailles. During Christmas 1763, Mozart and his family visited Versailles and dined with the King. The 7-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart played several works during his stay and later dedicated his first two harpsichord sonatas, published in 1764 in Paris, to Madame Victoria, daughter of Louis XV. In 1783, the palace was the site of the signing of the last two of the three treaties of the Peace of Paris (1783), which ended the American Revolutionary War. On 3 September, British and American delegates, led by Benjamin Franklin, signed the Treaty of Paris at the Hôtel d'York (now 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris, granting the United States independence. On 4 September, Spain and France signed separate treaties with Britain at the Palace of Versailles, formally ending the war. The King and Queen learned of the Storming of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July 1789, while they were at the palace, and remained isolated there as the Revolution in Paris spread. The growing anger in Paris led to the Women's March on Versailles on 5 October 1789. A crowd of several thousand men and women, protesting the high price and scarcity of bread, marched from the markets of Paris to Versailles. They took weapons from the city armoury, besieged the palace, and compelled the King and royal family and the members of the National Constituent Assembly to return with them to Paris the following day. As soon as the royal family departed, the palace was closed. In 1792, the National Convention, the new revolutionary government, ordered the transfer of all the paintings and sculptures from the palace to the Louvre. In 1793, the Convention declared the abolition of the monarchy and ordered all of the royal property in the palace to be sold at auction. The auction took place between 25 August 1793 and 11 August 1794. The furnishings and art of the palace, including the furniture, mirrors, baths, and kitchen equipment, were sold in seventeen thousand lots. All fleurs-de-lys and royal emblems on the buildings were chambered or chiselled off. The empty buildings were turned into a storehouse for furnishings, art and libraries confiscated from the nobility. The empty grand apartments were opened for tours beginning in 1793, and a small museum of French paintings and art school was opened in some of the empty rooms. By virtue of an order issued by the Versailles district directorate in August 1794, the Royal Gate was destroyed, the Cour Royale was cleared and the Cour de Marbre lost its precious floor. 19th century – history museum and government venue When Napoleon became Emperor of the French in 1804, he considered making Versailles his residence but abandoned the idea because of the cost of the renovation. Prior to his marriage with Marie-Louise in 1810, he had the Grand Trianon restored and refurnished as a springtime residence for himself and his family, in the style of furnishing that it is seen today. In 1815, with the final downfall of Napoleon, Louis XVIII, the younger brother of Louis XVI, became king, and considered returning the royal residence to Versailles, where he had been born. He ordered the restoration of the royal apartments, but the task and cost was too great. Louis XVIII had the far end of the south wing of the Cour Royale demolished and rebuilt (1814–1824) to match the Gabriel wing of 1780 opposite, which gave greater uniformity of appearance to the front entrance. Neither he nor his successor Charles X lived at Versailles. The French Revolution of 1830 brought a new monarch, Louis Philippe I to power, and a new ambition for Versailles. He did not reside at Versailles but began the creation of the Museum of the History of France, dedicated to "all the glories of France", which had been used to house some members of the royal family. The museum was begun in 1833 and inaugurated on 30 June 1837. Its most famous room is the Galerie des Batailles (Hall of Battles), which lies on most of the length of the second floor of the south wing. The museum project largely came to a halt when Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848, though the paintings of French heroes and great battles still remain in the south wing. Emperor Napoleon III used the palace on occasion as a stage for grand ceremonies. One of the most lavish was the banquet that he hosted for Queen Victoria in the Royal Opera of Versailles on 25 August 1855. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the palace was occupied by the general staff of the victorious German Army. Parts of the château, including the Hall of Mirrors, were turned into a military hospital. The creation of the German #empire, combining Prussia and the surrounding German states under Wilhelm I, was formally proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors on 18 January 1871. The Germans remained in the palace until the signing of the armistice in March 1871. In that month, the government of the new French Third Republic, which had departed Paris during the war for Tours and then Bordeaux, moved into the palace. The National Assembly held its meetings in the Opera House. The uprising of the Paris Commune in March 1871, prevented the French government, under Adolphe Thiers, from returning immediately to Paris. The military operation which suppressed the Commune at the end of May was directed from Versailles, and the prisoners of the Commune were marched there and put on trial in military courts. In 1875 a second parliamentary body, the French Senate, was created and held its meetings for the election of a President of the Republic in a new hall created in 1876 in the south wing of the palace. The French Senate and National Assembly continue to meet in the palace in joint session on special occasions, such as the amendment of the Constitution of France. 20th century The end of the 19th and the early 20th century saw the beginning of restoration efforts at the palace, first led by Pierre de Nolhac, poet and scholar and the first conservator, who began his work in 1892. The conservation and restoration were interrupted by two world wars but have continued until the present day. The palace returned to the world stage in June 1919, when, after six months of negotiations, the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the First World War, was signed in the Hall of Mirrors. Between 1925 and 1928, the American philanthropist and multi-millionaire John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave $2,166,000, the equivalent of about 38 million dollars in 2024, to restore and refurbish the palace. More work took place after World War II, with the restoration of the Royal Opera of Versailles. The theatre was reopened in 1957, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. In 1978, parts of the palace were heavily damaged in a bombing committed by Breton terrorists. Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. One of the more costly endeavours for the museum and the French Fifth Republic has been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. Consequently, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought-after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palace's original furnishings. 21st century The Palace of Versailles is currently owned by the French state. Its formal title is the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. Since 1995, it has been run as a Public Establishment, with an independent administration and management supervised by the French Ministry of Culture. Several restoration activities were initiated during the 2000s. In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which began with the replanting of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees during Cyclone Lothar on 26 December 1999. One part of the initiative, the restoration of the Hall of Mirrors, was completed in 2006. Another major project, the further restoration of the backstage areas of the Royal Opera of Versailles, occurred from 2007 to 2009. The palace and its grounds continue to be the site of several events in the 2020s. During the 2024 Summer Olympics, the palace's grounds hosted the equestrian and modern pentathlon competitions. In 2026, American singer-songwriter Olivia Rodrigo filmed the music video of her single "Drop Dead" in and around the palace, which is referenced in the song's lyrics. Months later, on 17 June 2026, U.S. President Donald Trump signed the Islamabad Memorandum – the memorandum of understanding to end the 2026 Iran war – during his dinner at the palace with French President Emmanuel Macron, which was held after the G7 summit in Évian-les-Bains. His Iranian counterpart, President Masoud Pezeshkian also remotely signed the document in Tehran. Architecture and plan The Palace of Versailles is a visual history of French architecture from the 1630s to the 1780s. Its earliest portion, the corps de logis, was built for Louis XIII in the style of his reign with brick, marble, and slate, which Le Vau surrounded in the 1660s with Enveloppe, an edifice that was inspired by Renaissance-era Italian villas. When Jules Hardouin-Mansart made further expansions to the palace in the 1680s, he used the Enveloppe as the model for his work. Neoclassical additions were made to the palace with the remodelling of the Ministers' Wings in the 1770s, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, and after the Bourbon Restoration. The palace was largely completed by the death of Louis XIV in 1715. The eastern facing palace has a U-shaped layout, with the corps de logis and symmetrical advancing secondary wings terminating with the Dufour Pavilion on the south and the Gabriel Pavilion to the north, creating an expansive cour d'honneur known as the Royal Court (Cour Royale). Flanking the Royal Court are two enormous asymmetrical wings that result in a façade of 402 metres (1,319 ft) in length. Covered by around 10 hectares (1.1 million square feet) of roof, the palace has 2,143 windows, 1,252 chimneys, and 67 staircases. The palace and its grounds have had a great influence on architecture and horticulture from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th century. Examples of works influenced by Versailles include Christopher Wren's work at Hampton Court Palace, Berlin Palace, the Palace of La Granja, Stockholm Palace, Ludwigsburg Palace, Karlsruhe Palace, Rastatt Palace, Nymphenburg Palace, Schleissheim Palace, and Esterházy Palace. Royal Apartments The construction in 1668–1671 of Louis Le Vau's enveloppe around the outside of Louis XIII's red brick and white stone château added state apartments for the king and the queen. The addition was known at the time as the château neuf (new château). The grands appartements (Grand Apartments, also referred to as the State Apartments) include the grand appartement du roi and the grand appartement de la reine. They occupied the main or principal floor of the château neuf, with three rooms in each apartment facing the garden to the west and four facing the garden parterres to the north and south, respectively. The private apartments of the king (the appartement du roi and the petit appartement du roi) and those of the queen (the petit appartement de la reine) remained in the château vieux (old château). Le Vau's design for the state apartments closely followed Italian models of the day, including the placement of the apartments on the main floor (the piano nobile, the next floor up from the ground level), a convention the architect borrowed from Italian palace design. The king's State Apartment consisted of an enfilade of seven rooms, each dedicated to one of the known planets and their associated titular Roman deity. The queen's apartment formed a parallel enfilade with that of the grand appartement du roi. After the addition of the Hall of Mirrors (1678–1684) the king's apartment was reduced to five rooms (until the reign of Louis XV, when two more rooms were added) and the queen's to four. The queen's apartments served as the residence of three queens of France – Maria Theresa of Spain, wife of Louis XIV, Maria Leszczyńska, wife of Louis XV, and Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI. Additionally, Louis XIV's granddaughter-in-law, Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy, duchess of Burgundy, wife of Louis, Duke of Burgundy, occupied these rooms from 1697 (the year of her marriage) to her death in 1712. Ambassador's Staircase The Ambassadors' Staircase (Escalier des Ambassadeurs) was an imperial staircase built from 1674 to 1680 by François d'Orbay. Until Louis XV had it demolished in 1752 to create a courtyard for his private apartments, the staircase was the primary entrance into the Palace of Versailles and the royal apartments especially. It was entered from the courtyard via a vestibule that, cramped and dark, contrasted greatly with the tall, open space of the staircase – famously lit naturally with a skylight – so as to overawe visitors. The staircase and walls of the room that contained it were clad in polychrome marble and gilded bronze, with decor in the Ionic order. Charles Le Brun painted the walls and ceiling of the room according to a festive theme to celebrate Louis XIV's victory in the Franco-Dutch War. On the wall immediately above the staircase were trompe-l'œil paintings of people from the Four Parts of the World looking into the staircase over a balustrade, a motif repeated on the ceiling fresco. There they were joined by allegorical figures for the twelve months of the year and various Classical Greek figures such as the Muses. A marble bust of Louis XIV, sculpted by Jean Warin in 1665–66, was placed in a niche above the first landing of the staircase. The State Apartments of the King The construction of the Hall of Mirrors between 1678 and 1686 coincided with a major alteration to the State Apartments. They were originally intended as his residence, but the King transformed them into galleries for his finest paintings, and venues for his many receptions for courtiers. During the season from All-Saints Day in November until Easter, these were usually held three times a week, from six to ten in the evening, with various entertainments. =### The Salon of Hercules= This was originally a chapel. It was rebuilt beginning in 1712 under the supervision of the First Architect to the King, Robert de Cotte, to showcase two paintings by Paolo Veronese, Eleazar and Rebecca and Meal at the House of Simon the Pharisee, which was a gift to Louis XIV from the Republic of Venice in 1664. The painting on the ceiling, The Apotheosis of Hercules, by François Lemoyne, was completed in 1736, and gave the room its name. =### The Salon of Abundance= The Salon of Abundance was the antechamber to the Cabinet of Curios (now the Games Room), which displayed Louis XIV's collection of precious jewels and rare objects. Some of the objects in the collection are depicted in René-Antoine Houasse's painting Abundance and Liberality (1683), located on the ceiling over the door opposite the windows. =### The Salon of Venus= This salon was used for serving light meals during evening receptions. The principal feature in this room is Jean Warin's life-size statue of Louis XIV in the costume of a Roman emperor. On the ceiling in a gilded oval frame is another painting by Houasse, Venus subjugating the Gods and Powers (1672–1681). Trompe-l'œil paintings and sculpture around the ceiling illustrate mythological themes. =### The Salon of Mercury= The Salon of Mercury was the original State Bedchamber when Louis XIV officially moved the court and government to the palace in 1682. The bed is a replica of the original commissioned by King Louis Philippe I in the 19th century when he turned the palace into a museum. The ceiling paintings by the Flemish artist Jean Baptiste de Champaigne depict the god Mercury in his chariot, drawn by a rooster, and Alexander the Great and Ptolemy surrounded by scholars and philosophers. The Automaton Clock was made for the King by the royal clockmaker Antoine Morand in 1706. When it chimes the hour, figures of Louis XIV and Fame descend from a cloud. =### The Salon of Mars= The Salon of Mars was used by the royal guards until 1782, and was decorated on a military theme with helmets and trophies. It was turned into a concert room between 1684 and 1750, with galleries for musicians on either side. Portraits of Louis XV and his Queen, Marie Leszczyńska, by the Flemish artist Carle Van Loo decorate the room today. =### The Salon of Apollo= The Salon of Apollo was the royal throne room under Louis XIV, and was the setting for formal audiences. The eight-foot-high silver throne was melted down in 1689 to help pay the costs of an expensive war, and was replaced by a more modest throne of gilded wood. The central painting on the ceiling, by Charles de la Fosse, depicts the Sun Chariot of Apollo, the King's favourite emblem, pulled by four horses and surrounded by the four seasons. =### The Salon of Diana= The Salon of Diana was used by Louis XIV as a billiards room, and had galleries from which courtiers could watch him play. The decoration of the walls and ceiling depicts scenes from the life of the goddess Diana. The celebrated bust of Louis XIV by Bernini made during the famous sculptor's visit to France in 1665 is on display here. Private apartments of the King and Queen =### Private apartments of the King= The apartments of the King were the heart of the château; they were in the same location as the rooms of Louis XIII, the creator of the château, on the first floor (second floor US style). They were set aside for the personal use of Louis XIV in 1683. He and his successors Louis XV and Louis XVI used these rooms for official functions, such as the ceremonial lever ("waking up") and the coucher ("going to bed") of the monarch, which was attended by a crowd of courtiers. The King's apartment was accessed from the Hall of Mirrors from the Oeil de Boeuf antechamber or from the Guardroom and the Grand Couvert, the ceremonial room where Louis XIV often took his evening meals, seated alone at a table in front of the fireplace. His spoon, fork, and knife were brought to him in a golden box. The courtiers could watch as he dined. The King's bedchamber had originally been a Drawing Room before Louis XIV transformed it into his own bedroom in 1701. He died there on 1 September 1715. Both Louis XV and Louis XVI continued to use the bedroom for their official awakening and going to bed. On 6 October 1789, from the balcony of this room Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, joined by the Marquis de Lafayette, looked down on the hostile crowd in the courtyard, shortly before the King was forced to return to Paris. The bed of the King is placed beneath a carved relief by Nicolas Coustou entitled France watching over the sleeping King. The decoration includes several paintings set into the panelling, including a self-portrait of Antony van Dyck. =### Private apartments of The Queen= The petit appartement de la reine is a suite of rooms that were reserved for the personal use of the queen. Originally arranged for the use of the Maria Theresa of Spain, consort of Louis XIV, the rooms were later modified for use by Marie Leszczyńska and finally for Marie Antoinette. The Queen's apartments and the King's Apartments were laid out on the same design, each suite having seven rooms. Both suites had ceilings painted with scenes from mythology; the King's ceilings featured male figures, the Queen's featured females. Hall of Mirrors The Hall of Mirrors is a long gallery at the westernmost part of the palace that looks out onto the gardens. The hall was built from 1678 to 1681 on the site of a terrace Le Vau built between the king and queen's suites. The hall is clad in marble and decorated in a modified version of the Corinthian order, with 578 mirrors facing 17 windows and reflecting the light provided by them. The ceiling fresco, painted by Le Brun over the next four years, embellishes the first 18 years of Louis XIV's reign in 30 scenes, 17 of which are military victories over the Dutch. The fresco depicts Louis XIV himself alongside Classical figures in the scenes celebrating moments in his reign such as the beginning of personal rule in 1661, breaking from earlier frescoes at Versailles that used allegories derived from Classical and mythological scenes. The Salon of War and the Salon of Peace bookend the Hall of Mirrors on its northern and southern ends respectively. The Salon of War, constructed and decorated from 1678 to 1686, celebrates French victories in the Franco-Dutch War with marble panels, gilded bronze trophies of arms, and a stucco bas-relief of Louis XIV on horseback riding over his enemies. The Salon of Peace is decorated in the same fashion but according to its eponymous theme. Royal Chapel The Royal Chapel of Versailles is located at the southern end of the north wing. The building stands 40-metre (130 ft) high, and measures 42 metres (138 ft) long and 24 metres (79 ft) wide. The chapel is rectangular with a semicircular apse, combining traditional, #gothic royal French church architecture with the French Baroque style of Versailles. The ceiling of the chapel is constituted by an unbroken vault, divided into three frescos by Antoine Coypel, Charles de La Fosse, and Jean Jouvenet. The palette of motifs beneath the frescoes glorify the deeds of Louis IX, and include images of David, Constantine, Charlemagne, and Louis IX, fleur de lis, and Louis XIV's monogram. The organ of the chapel was built by Robert Clicquot and Julien Tribuot in 1709–1710. Louis XIV commissioned the chapel, its sixth, from Hardouin-Mansart and Le Brun in 1683–84. It was the last building constructed at Versailles during Louis XIV's reign. Construction was delayed until 1699, however, and it was not completed until 1710. The only major modification to the chapel since its completion was the removal of a lantern from its roof in 1765. A full restoration of the chapel began in late 2017 and lasted into early 2021. Royal Opera The Royal Opera of Versailles was originally commissioned by Louis XIV in 1682 and was to be built at the end of the North Wing with a design by Hardouin-Mansart and Carlo Vigarani. However, due to the expense of the King's continental wars, the project was put aside. The idea was revived by Louis XV with a new design by Ange-Jacques Gabriel in 1748, but this was also temporarily put aside. The project was revived and rushed ahead for the planned celebration of the marriage of the Dauphin, the future Louis XVI, and Marie Antoinette. For economy and speed, the new opera was built almost entirely of wood, which also gave it very high quality acoustics. The wood was painted to resemble marble, and the ceiling was decorated with a painting of the Apollo, the god of the arts, preparing crowns for illustrious artists, by Louis Jean-Jacques Durameau. The sculptor Augustin Pajou added statuary and reliefs to complete the decoration. The new Opera was inaugurated on 16 May 1770, as part of the celebration of the royal wedding. In October 1789, early in the French Revolution, the last banquet for the royal guardsmen was hosted by the King in the opera, before he departed for Paris. Following the Franco-German War in 1871 and then the Paris Commune until 1875, the French National Assembly met in the opera, until the proclamation of the French Third Republic and the return of the government to Paris. Museum of the History of France Shortly after becoming king in 1830, Louis Philippe I decided to transform the palace into a museum devoted to "All the Glories of France," with paintings and sculpture depicting famous French victories and heroes. Most of the apartments of the palace were entirely demolished (in the main building, practically all of the apartments were annihilated, with only the apartments of the king and queen remaining almost intact), and turned into a series of several large rooms and galleries: the Coronation Room (whose original volume was left untouched by Louis-Philippe), which displays the celebrated painting of the coronation of Napoleon I by Jacques-Louis David; the Hall of Battles; commemorating French victories with large-scale paintings; and the 1830 room, which celebrated Louis-Philippe's own coming to power in the French Revolution of 1830. Some paintings were brought from the Louvre, including works depicting events in French history by Philippe de Champaigne, Pierre Mignard, Laurent de La Hyre, Charles Le Brun, Adam Frans van der Meulen, Nicolas de Largillière, Hyacinthe Rigaud, Jean-Antoine Houdon, Jean-Marc Nattier, Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, Hubert Robert, Thomas Lawrence, Jacques-Louis David, and Antoine-Jean Gros. Others were commissioned especially for the museum by prominent artists of the early 19th century, including Eugène Delacroix, who painted Saint Louis at the French victory over the British in the Battle of Taillebourg in 1242. Other painters featured include Horace Vernet and François Gérard. A monumental painting by Vernet features Louis Philippe himself, with his sons, posing in front of the gates of the palace. The overthrow of Louis Philippe in 1848 put an end to his grand plans for the museum, but the Gallery of Battles is still as it was, and is passed through by many visitors to the royal apartments and grand salons. Another set of rooms on the first floor has been made into galleries on Louis XIV and his court, displaying furniture, paintings, and sculptures. In recent years, eleven rooms on the ground floor between the Chapel and the Opera have been turned into a history of the palace, with audiovisual displays and models. Estate of Versailles The estate of Versailles consists of the palace, the subsidiary buildings around it, and its park and gardens. As of June 2021, the estate altogether covers an area of 800 hectares (8.0 km2; 2,000 acres), with the park and gardens laid out to the south, west, and north of the palace. The palace is approached from the east by the Avenue de Paris, measuring 27 kilometres (17 mi) from Paris to a gate between the Grande and Petite Écuries. Beyond these stables is the Place d'Armes, where the Avenue de Paris meets the Avenue de Sceaux and Avenue de Saint-Cloud (see map), the three roads that formed the main arteries of the city of Versailles. Exactly where the three roads meet is a gate leading into the cour d'honneur, hemmed in by the Ministers' Wings. Beyond is the Royal Gate and the main palace, which wraps around the Royal and finally Marble Courts. The estate was established by Louis XIII as a hunting retreat, with a park just to the west of his château. From 1661, Louis XIV expanded the estate until, at its greatest extent, the estate was made up by the Grand Parc, a hunting ground of 15,000 hectares (150 km2; 37,000 acres), and the gardens, called the Petit Parc, which covered 1,700 hectares (17 km2; 4,200 acres). A 40-kilometre-long (25 mi), 3-metre-high (10 ft) wall with 24 gateways enclosed the estate. The landscape of the estate had to be created from the bog that surrounded Louis XIII's château using landscape architecture usually employed in fortress building. The approach to the palace and the gardens were carefully laid out via the moving of earth and construction of terraces. The water from the marsh was marshalled into a series of lakes and ponds around Versailles, but these reservoirs were not sufficient for the palace, city, or gardens. Great lengths were taken to supply Versailles with water, such as the damming of the river Bièvre to create an inflow in the 1660s, the construction of an enormous pumping station at the river Seine near Marly-le-Roi in 1681, and an attempt to divert water from the river Eure with a canal in the later 1680s. Gardens The gardens of Versailles, as they have existed since the reign of Louis XIV, are the work of André Le Nôtre. Le Nôtre's gardens were preceded by a simple garden laid out in the 1630s by landscape architects Jacques Boyceau and Jacques de Nemours, which he rearranged along an east–west axis that, because of Louis XIV's land purchases and the clearing of woodland, were expanded literally as far as could be seen. The resulting gardens were a collaboration between Le Nôtre, Le Brun, Colbert, and Louis XIV, marked by rigid order, discipline, and open space, with axial paths, flowerbeds, hedges, and ponds and lakes as motifs. They became the epitome of the French formal garden style, and have been very influential and widely imitated or reproduced. Subsidiary structures The first of the subsidiary structures of the Palace of Versailles was the Versailles Menagerie, built by Le Vau between the years 1662 and 1664, at the southern end of the Grand Canal. The apartments, overlooking the pens, were renovated by Hardouin-Mansart from 1698 to 1700, but the Menagerie fell into disuse in 1712. After a long period of decay, it was demolished in 1801. The Versailles Orangery, just to the south of the palace, was first built by Le Vau in 1663, originally as part of the general moving of earth to create the Estate. It was also modified by Mansart, who, from 1681 to 1685, totally rebuilt it and doubled its size. In late 1679, Louis XIV commissioned Mansart to build the Château de Marly, a retreat at the edge of Versailles's estate, about 8.0 kilometres (5 mi) from the palace. The château consisted of a primary residential building and twelve pavilions, in Palladian style placed in two rows on either side of the main building. Construction was completed in 1686, when Louis XIV spent his first night there. The château was nationalized and sold in 1799, and subsequently demolished and replaced with industrial buildings. These were themselves demolished in 1805, and then in 1811 the estate was purchased by Napoleon. On 1 June 2009, the grounds of the Château de Marly were ceded to the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. La Lanterne, is a hunting lodge named after the lantern that topped the nearby Menagerie that was built in 1787 by Philippe Louis de Noailles, then the palace governor. It has since 1960 been a state residence. The Grand Trianon In 1668, Louis XIV purchased and demolished the hamlet of Trianon, near the northern tip of the Grand Canal, and in its place, he commissioned Le Vau to construct a retreat from court, remembered as the Porcelain Trianon. Designed and built by Le Vau in 1670, it was the first example of Chinoiserie (faux Chinese) architecture in Europe, though it was largely designed in French style. The roof was clad not with porcelain but with delftware, and was thus prone to leaks, so in 1687 Louis XIV ordered it demolished. Nevertheless, the Porcelain Trianon was itself influential and copycats were built across Europe. To replace the Porcelain Trianon, Louis XIV tasked Hardouin-Mansart with the construction in 1687 of the Grand Trianon, built from marble in three months. The Grand Trianon has a single story, except for its attached service wing, which was modified by Hardouin-Mansart in 1705–06. The east façade has a courtyard while the west faces the gardens of the Grand Trianon, and between them a peristyle. The interiors are mostly original, and housed Louis XIV, the Madame de Maintenon, Marie Leszczyńska, and Napoleon, who ordered restorations to the building. Under Charles de Gaulle, the north wing of the Grand Trianon became a residence of the President of France. Petit Trianon The Petit Trianon, whose construction from 1762 to 1768 led to the advent of the names "Grand" and "Petit Trianon", was constructed for Louis XV and the Madame du Barry in the Neoclassical style by Gabriel. The building has a piano nobile, basement, and attic, with five windows on each floor. On becoming king, Louis XVI gave the Petit Trianon to Marie Antoinette, who remodeled it, relaid its gardens in the then-current English and Oriental styles, and formed her own court there. The Queen's hamlet and Theatre Near the Trianons are the French pavilion, built by Gabriel in 1750 between the two residences, and the Queen's Theatre and Queen's Hamlet, built by architect Richard Mique in 1780 and from 1783 to 1785 respectively. These were both built at the behest of Marie Antoinette; the theatre, hidden in the gardens, indulged her appreciation of opera and is absolutely original, and the hamlet to extend her gardens with rustic amenities. The building scheme of the Queen's Hamlet includes a farmhouse (the farm was to produce milk and eggs for the queen), a dairy, a dovecote, a boudoir, a barn that burned down during the French Revolution, a mill and a tower in the form of a lighthouse. Modern political and ceremonial functions The palace still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameral French Parliament—consisting of the Senate (Sénat) and the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale)—meet in joint session (a congress of the French Parliament) in Versailles to revise or otherwise amend the French Constitution, a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution. For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability of International Criminal Court decisions and for gender equality in candidate lists), in January 2000 (ratifying the Treaty of Amsterdam), in March 2003 (specifying the "decentralized organization" of the French Republic), and in March 2024 (to enshrine the freedom of women to have recourse to abortion). In 2009, President Nicolas Sarkozy addressed the Great Recession before a congress in Versailles, the first time that this had been done since 1848, when Louis Napoleon Bonaparte gave an address before the French Second Republic. Following the November 2015 Paris attacks, President François Hollande gave a speech before a rare joint session of parliament at the Palace of Versailles. This was the third time since 1848 that a French president addressed a joint session of the French Parliament at Versailles. The president of the National Assembly has an official apartment at the Palace of Versailles. In 2023 a state visit by Charles III to France included a state banquet at the Palace. Citations References Web sources "Histoire de Versailles" (in French). City of Versailles. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2021. "Palace and Park of Versailles". #UNESCO. Retrieved 21 June 2021. =### French Ministry of Culture= #france #travel #history #europe #culture